Emotional, empirical, theoretical and intuitive levels of knowledge
Forms of emotional level knowledge. Knowledge received through the sense organs is sensory knowledge. It is cognitive knowledge obtained as a result of perceiving and perceiving the properties of the senses or objects. For example, a person sees a flying plane and knows what it is.
Intuition and perception. In cognitive activity, intuition is a simple image, perception, copy, or unique image of certain properties of things felt through the sense organs. For example, in an orange, we perceive an orange color, a specific smell, and taste. Sensations arise under the influence of processes occurring in the environment outside of a person and affecting his sense organs. Sound and light waves, mechanical pressure, chemical action, etc. are external influences.
Pharoabi distinguishes between two forms of cognition - emotional and rational cognition. Focusing on the role of senses that connect a person with the outside world, Farobi divides them into five types. Considering the senses as the main source of knowledge, he argues that the senses can only be real if the perception of the thing corresponds to the thing itself. Pharoabi's views on the role of senses in cognition and emotional perception in general are very similar to Aristotle's opinion that "a person who does not perceive does not know or understand anything."
The difference between a person and an animal is that he is able to acquire knowledge with the help of the mind and senses. "The power of the mind" embodies the mental perception of the things of existence. Knowing the nature and causes of worldly phenomena, the mind tries to know the heavenly bodies and their forms. At this last stage, the universe that affects man merges with the mind and acquires the quality of immortality.
Mind serves as a link between man and the first cause as the stages of creation of the world, and the first cause, in turn, directly affects the mind. The moving mind is connected with the soul through the soul, the soul takes place from the human body, thus the aspects of the otherworldly life are transferred to the person, and ultimately the human essence, knowledge - his mind acquires the property of immortality.
According to Farobi, just as senses have an order, the mind also has its own order. The first method is suitable for natural sciences (physics), the second - for mathematics. Both methods are used only in order to gain a deeper understanding of one or another aspect of things and phenomena in science.
Sensations reflect the objective nature of the qualitative diversity of the world and arise under its influence. Sensations also provide rich information about the quantitative indicators of events. Sensations more accurately reflect the difference between sounds of the same tone, depending on their strength, color shades, changes in temperature, and other differences in objects and processes. Loss of sensation inevitably leads to loss of consciousness.
General organic types of sensation are distinguished, such as sight, hearing, vibration, touch, weather, pain, sense of balance and acceleration, smell, taste. Each form of sensations reflects the general properties of this form and type of matter movement, for example, electromagnetic, sound vibrations, chemical effects, etc., through some of its manifestations.
Any object has many different aspects and properties. For example, take a lump of sugar: it is hard, white, sweet, has a certain shape, volume and weight. All these properties are embodied in one object. We perceive and understand these properties not individually, but as a whole - as a lump of sugar. Therefore, the unity of various aspects and properties of the object and at the same time their large number form the objective basis of perception of the whole image.
Objects that directly affect the sense organs are called the perception of a whole image that reflects their properties and relationships. Human perception involves understanding and understanding things, their properties and relationships. In this, a person includes each of his new impressions into the existing system of knowledge. Sensing and perception are realized and developed as a result of the active work of the sense organs in the process of a person's practical impact on the outside world, in work; for example, eyes without movement are unable to distinguish the color of objects.
The organism's need to focus on the macroscopic, holistic world of things and processes has organized our senses so that we perceive things as a whole. Otherwise, everything would become a curtain of moving particles, molecules, and we would not see the boundaries of things. The organ of vision is developed in the direction of the best possible reflection of light phenomena in existence, which plays an important role in the life of the organism. Therefore, the eye is adapted to receive light under the influence of light existing in nature, the ear is adapted to distinguish sound vibrations, etc. not only does not hinder knowledge, but, on the contrary, provides a clearer and more complete reflection of the objective properties of things.
The principle that intuition is a subjective image of the objective world is directed against the mechanical division of qualities into primary and secondary. From this point of view, primary qualities (shape, size, etc.) are a reflection of objectively existing properties of things, secondary qualities (color, sound, etc.) acquire a purely subjective quality. Different properties of objects can correspond to the same sensation: the sensation of white can be a mixture of electromagnetic properties of all wavelengths of waves in the range of vision, and a mixture of any pair of complementary colors (red and blue-green, yellow and purple). reflects This leads to the erroneous conclusion that white color cannot be considered as an objective property of a wave or surface of an object. Black color is not a wave property: its condition is the absence of radiation in the field of vision. A wave cannot give information about something that does not exist. The following false conclusion follows from this: color, smell are not properties of things, but our senses (E.Max); The word "color" defines a certain category of mental experiences (V. Ostwald). And the world is silent, devoid of colors and smells. There is neither hot nor cold in it. All these are just our senses.
Here it is necessary to distinguish two sides of the issue: what is the source of sensations and what is their psychophysiological mechanism.
The qualitative accuracy of the image reflects the qualitative accuracy of the subject. The vibration of the body or the distribution of the same electromagnetic rays depends on the structure of the body, its temperature and other properties. For example, each metal colors the fire in its own color; every substance acquires its color when it turns into a burning gas. Snow is not white because it appears white to our eyes, but because it is actually white, we see it that way. One cannot agree with mechanists and subjectivists that a thing has color only when we look at it and smell only when we smell it. With the eye's color-sensing apparatus, the perceptual color itself came into existence and exists.
Memory, imagination and imagination. Although sensation and perception are the source of all human knowledge, sensory knowledge is not enough. This or that subject affects human senses for a certain period of time. Then this effect will disappear. However, the image of the object does not disappear without a trace. It is embodied and preserved in memory. Therefore, it is possible to think about something even after it has disappeared, because a certain idea about it remains. Even with closed eyes we imagine things.
Thus, we see how difficult the path to the truth is: it involves the use of all the powers of the soul - memory, will, imagination, intuition and reason. Take memory for example. Is it possible to think about knowing without memory? Of course not: a soul without memory is a net without fish. It is impossible to imagine knowing without this wonderful phenomenon.
Sensing and perception processes leave a "trace" in the brain. The essence of these traces is the ability to embody images of things that do not affect a person at the moment.
Memory unites the past and the present, ensures their transition to each other. "After the number of sounds and words increases, a person's memory comes to his aid... Writing, along with memory, increases human capabilities"1. If images appear in the brain when an object affects him, and disappear immediately after this effect ceases, then a person always perceives objects as completely unfamiliar. He would not have known these things, so he would not have understood them. In order to understand something, it is necessary for the mind to work - to compare the present state with the previous state. As a result of the perception of external influences and their preservation in time, images are awakened in the memory.
Imaginations are images of things that once impressed the senses of a person and are embodied in connections that are later preserved in the brain.
Sensing and perception are the beginnings of consciousness. Memory records and stores received information. In imagination, consciousness is separated from its immediate source for the first time and begins to exist as a relatively independent subjective phenomenon. Man is able to create relatively new images freely. Imagination is the link between perception and theoretical thinking.
Imagination is an important human property. Imagination makes up for the lack of visualization in the flow of thought. The power of imagination not only recalls the existing images in the experience (mind), but also connects them with each other and thus raises them to the level of general imagination. The re-embodiment of images is carried out by the power of imagination freely and without the help of direct observation. This form of image generation differs from ordinary recollection, which does not have such free movement, but requires actual observation and allows images to emerge involuntarily.
Empirical knowledge and its forms. Empirical knowledge can be an indirect perception of something that exists. For example, a scientist sees an electrical line of an electrocardiogram or an indicator of an instrument that informs him about the state of a corresponding object that he does not see. In other words, the empirical level of cognition is related to the use of various tools; it involves observation, description of the observed thing or event, keeping records, using documents, for example, a historian works with archives and other sources. So it is a higher level of knowing than knowing at the level of ordinary intuition.
Empirical knowledge is a set of scientific evidence that forms the basis of theoretical knowledge. Empirical knowledge is formed using two methods of observation and experimentation.
Observation is a consistent perception that is deliberately carried out in order to determine the important properties and relationships of the object of knowledge. Determining the purpose of observation, determining its methods, drawing up a plan to control the behavior of the object being studied, and using tools are important features of observation. The results of observations give us preliminary information in the form of scientific evidence about existence.
Observation can be direct or indirect, for example, using a microscope. Molecules can now be visually observed using an electron microscope. Monitoring is an active form of activity aimed at certain objects, which involves the definition of goals and tasks. Anyone who wants to know anything must train his eyes to be observant.
An intelligent, creative and deep mind is characterized by the ability to see and perceive important aspects of things and events that most people do not pay attention to. This ability is the innovation factor in science and art. Observation requires special training. In the preparation of observations, it is important to define the tasks of observation, the requirements that it must meet, and to develop in advance the plan and methods of observation. Observation records things and events in nature itself. However, man cannot be satisfied with the role of observer. He becomes an active tester by conducting experiments. A thought experiment conducted on a model imagined in the brain is a special form of cognition. It is characterized by an integral connection of imagination and thinking.
An experiment is a method of research, with the help of which an object is either artificially created or studied under certain conditions suitable for research purposes. In the experiment, the researcher actively intervenes in the conditions of conducting scientific research. He can stop the process at any stage, which allows to study the object in more detail. The researcher can connect the studied object with other objects in different ways, or he can create conditions that have not been observed before and thus identify new properties unknown to science.
The experiment allows to embody the studied phenomenon in an artificial way and test the results of theoretical or empirical knowledge in practice.
Experiments are always, especially in modern science, sometimes associated with the use of very complex technical means, that is, tools. A tool is a device or a system of devices with the necessary properties, designed to receive information about phenomena and properties that cannot be known by human senses. Instruments can enhance our senses, measure the activity level of object properties, or detect traces left by the object being studied.
According to research objectives, a learning experiment, a discovery of a new thing or phenomenon, and an investigation experiment that identifies and demonstrates new properties; (determining the correctness of hypotheses), a qualitative experiment aimed at determining objects or their properties, and a quantitative experiment related to measuring the properties of the studied object are distinguished. According to the object of study, natural and social experiments are distinguished, and according to the methods of implementation - natural and artificial, model and direct practical and thought experiments. There is also a scientific and production experiment. Production experiment includes experiments in industrial and field conditions. The model experiment is of particular importance. Physical and mathematical modeling are different. A physical model implies embodying the known properties of the studied object in order to determine its unknown properties (models of airplanes, spaceships, or neurons, etc.). A mathematical model is built on the basis of a formal (mathematical) analogy that describes the general, functional relationship of various objects, which also allows to determine the unknown properties of existing objects.
The main method of the experiment is to change the usual conditions under which the studied object exists. It allows determining the causal connection between the properties of the studied object and the conditions, as well as the nature of the change of these properties due to the change of conditions. At the same time, this method provides an opportunity to determine new properties of objects that do not appear in natural conditions, for example, the influence of temperature, light, humidity and the like on the growth and development of plants in artificial climate laboratories. or can be correctly identified at this level. As the conditions change, certain properties of the object change (sometimes reappear), while other properties may not change significantly. The experiment is characterized by the possibility of controlling the conditions, measuring the parameters of the processes, and using the equipment. Humans can make mistakes when experimenting. Tools are free from this drawback. With the help of a microscope, telescope, x-ray machine, radio, television, telephone, seismograph, and the like, man has significantly expanded and deepened his perception. The progress achieved in science, especially in natural science, is inextricably linked with the improvement of experimental methods and tools. In recent years, scientists have had access to computers, for example, which are directly integrated into the process of scientific creation.
An experiment can be repeated many times and thus conclusions can be based on a larger number of observations. To conduct an experiment, preliminary knowledge is needed, as IPPavlov noted, to develop evidence, it is necessary to have a general idea about the subject. These general ideas, assumptions, hypotheses are derived from previous observations, experiments and all human experience. They lead to experimentation. Without a clearly defined goal, blind observation and experimentation cannot be effective. If you don't have an idea in your head, you can't see any evidence, said IPPavlov.
The result of the process of observation and experimentation is expressed by description or statement. It can also be expressed in the form of a report made using generally accepted terms, with graphs, pictures, photos and films attached, mathematical and chemical formulas. The main scientific requirement for the description is the correct and accurate representation of observation and experimental data. The description may be complete or incomplete, but it always implies some degree of systematization of the material, that is, its grouping and generalization: pure description remains within the scope of scientific creation.
An important element of empirical methods of knowledge is comparison, that is, identification of similarities and differences between the properties of the studied objects that are determined by observation or experiment. Measurement is some form of comparison. The results of observation and experiment have scientific value only if they are expressed by measurement. Measurement is the process of determining the size that describes the level of development of the object's properties. It is carried out in the form of a comparison with another quantity taken as a unit of measurement.
Scientific evidence. Scientific proof is the result of empirical knowledge. Identifying evidence (or evidence) is a prerequisite for scientific research. Evidence is a record of a material or spiritual world phenomenon, any phenomenon, property or relationship that has become a proven wealth of knowledge. In the words of A. Einstein, science should start with evidence and end with evidence, regardless of the structure of the theoretical structures between the beginning and the end. The concept of proof has different meanings. Among the numerous definitions of the term "evidence", the following can be noted. First, evidence as an event of existence, an incident, event, situation that can be based on. These are evidences of life that exist regardless of whether humans are aware of them or not.
Secondly, the concept of "evidence" is used to define the perceived events and phenomena of existence. The diversity of human knowledge is manifested in the fact that the same proof of existence can be understood at ordinary and scientific levels of knowledge, art, journalism or legal practice. Therefore, the level of reliability of different evidences determined by different methods will also be different. Often, scientific evidence and the event of existence seem to be synonymous, and this allows some philosophers and scientists to describe the truth of the evidence as absolute truth. Such a vision does not correspond to the real picture of knowledge, turns it into a dogma and simplifies it.
Evidence has a complex structure. They include information about existence, interpretation of evidence, method of obtaining and describing it.
An important part of the proof is the information about the existence that enables the formation of an idea about the existence or some of its properties. Evidence's consistency with existence allows it to be characterized as real. For this reason, evidence is the empirical basis of science, an important method of confirming or disproving a theory. With the help of evidence, existence is understood objectively, without being tied to theory. The evidence makes it possible to discover phenomena that do not fit into the scope of the old theory, that contradict it.
Interpretation is an important element of evidence, and it takes many forms. Scientific evidence is implicitly related to theory. With the help of theory, the tasks of empirical research are determined and its results are interpreted. Interpretation is a theoretical-methodological condition of its formation, a theoretical conclusion from the evidence, its scientific explanation, or an assessment made from various ideological, scientific or philosophical points of view.
There is also a material-technical or methodical aspect of evidence, that is, a method of obtaining it. The reliability of the evidence is largely determined by the method and means by which it was obtained. For example, election campaigns often use the results of sociological studies to rate candidates and their chances of success. Often, their results are significantly different from each other, sometimes completely contradictory. Excluding the possibility of direct error, the reason for such differences can be explained by differences in methodologies.
The centuries-old history of science is not only the history of discoveries, but also the history of the development of the language of science, which is considered an important factor in theoretical abstraction, generalization or systematization of evidence. Therefore, any argument has a sign-relational aspect, that is, the language of science in which it is described. Graphs, schemes, scientific symbols and terms are important attributes of scientific language. If it is impossible to describe a scientific discovery in ordinary terms, the process of understanding it sometimes takes many years.
Depending on the development of scientific knowledge, it became apparent that the natural language is not semantically consistent with the content of the things expressed in it. The fluency of natural language expressions, the ambiguity of the logical structure of sentences, the variability of the meanings of language signs under the influence of the context, psychological associations - all this hindered the achievement of the accuracy and clarity of the meaning necessary for scientific knowledge. As a result, there was a need to replace natural language with artificially formalized language. Its discovery greatly enriched the knowledge tools of science, allowing it to solve new and new complex tasks. It should be noted that both scientific evidence, hypotheses, theories, and scientific problems rely on artificial languages created in science.
Scientific evidence is included in the theoretical system and has two important properties: reliability and univariability. The reliability of scientific evidence is shown in such a way that it can be obtained and expressed by researchers with the help of new experiments conducted at different times. The uniqueness of scientific evidence is that it retains its reliability regardless of the variety of interpretations.
As a result of the generalization of scientific evidence, they serve as a basis for theory. Simple forms of summarizing evidence are systematization and classification based on their analysis, synthesis, classification, use of primary explanatory schemes, etc. It is known that many scientific discoveries were made as a result of the selfless work of scientists to systematize and classify evidence (for example, the theory of the emergence of species by natural selection created by Ch. Darwin, the periodic system of chemical elements by DIMendeleev).
Evidence acquires scientific significance only if there is a theory that interprets it, a method of classifying it, and if it is understood in relation to other evidence. Only in an interconnected and integrated way can evidence serve as a basis for theoretical generalization. Anecdotal and anecdotal evidence from life is incapable of substantiating any thing or event. Any theory can be constructed from poorly selected evidence, but it will have no scientific value.
Theoretical knowledge and its forms. Scientific proofs perform two functions in relation to the theory: in relation to the existing theory, the scientific proof either strengthens it (verifies it), or conflicts with it and shows its groundlessness (falsifies it). However, on the other hand, theory is not just a generalization of the body of scientific evidence obtained at the level of empirical research. It itself becomes a source of new scientific evidence. Thus, empirical and theoretical knowledge is a unified phenomenon - the unity of two aspects of scientific knowledge. The interaction and movement of these parties in the process of certain scientific knowledge, their interrelation determines the emergence of a consistent series of forms characteristic of theoretical knowledge. The main forms of theoretical knowledge are: scientific problem, hypothesis, theory, principles, laws, categories, paradigms.
A scientific problem. All scientific knowledge begins with a problem. In general, the process of development of human knowledge can be described as moving from posing certain problems to solving them, and then posing new problems. But what is the real problem? Why do scientific problems arise? What is the difference between a problem and an issue? What is the scope of scientific problems?
A problem is an issue or a set of issues that arise objectively in the course of the development of knowledge, the solution of which is of great practical or theoretical importance. Also, a problem, a theoretical or practical issue that needs to be solved; in science, it is a conflicting situation that takes the form of opposing approaches to the explanation of any events, objects, processes and requires an appropriate theory to solve it.
Defining the problem correctly is an important condition for its successful solution. An ill-posed problem or dummy problem distracts from solving real problems.
Setting the problem is the first stage of the process of scientific knowledge. When setting a problem, first of all, it is necessary to understand some situation as a problem, and furthermore, to clearly understand the content of the problem, to define it by distinguishing between known and unknown things.
Scientific problems are either subject matter or procedure related. Subject-related problems reflect the objects being studied, and procedural problems reflect methods of acquiring knowledge and evaluating it. On the other hand, there are empirical and conceptual types of subject-related problems, and methodological and evaluation-related types of procedural problems. In order to solve empirical problems, in addition to purely theoretical analysis of the material, it is necessary to perform certain operations with objects, although conceptual problems do not require direct reference to existence. Unlike subject problems, procedural problems are always conceptual in nature; the difference between procedural problems is that methodological problems cannot have a solution in the form of relative observation, while evaluation problems introduce benchmarks and goals into science.
An empirical problem involves first looking for data; empirical problems can be answered using scientific methods such as observation, experiment, and measurement. In addition, a problem that requires making tools, preparing reagents, etc., to find a solution is also empirical.
Conceptual problems are associated with a large number of previously received information, and involve their organization and interpretation, drawing conclusions and forming hypotheses, eliminating contradictions in accordance with the requirements of logical consistency.
Methodological problems are mainly related to research planning: by solving them, certain agreements are made, the order of problem solving, observation and experiments is determined, the intended conceptual procedures are determined, etc.
Evaluative problems involve evaluating empirical data, hypotheses, theories, and the like, and even evaluating how well the problem itself has been formulated and defined. For a problem to be considered correctly posed:
1) availability of certain scientific knowledge (data, theory, methodology) that can be included in the structure of the studied problem;
2) the problem should be properly formulated;
3) the problem should be reasonable, that is, its foundations should not be false;
4) the problem is limited to a certain level;
5) the existence condition of the solution and its uniqueness are indicated;
6) conditions regarding acceptable solution signs and methods of checking the acceptable solution should be accepted.
Thus, in the end, not all scientific problems find their solution: some problems remain unsolved for a long time after they are posed (for example, Frame's theorem remained unsolved for several hundred years), some problems do not find their solution (for example , quadrature of a circle, trisection of an angle, and problems about the duality of a cube), and some problems completely disappear from the attention of successive generations of scientists.
A scientific problem is distinguished from other problems by the following characteristics:
- He always directs the scientist to get real knowledge.
- Aims at acquiring new knowledge. A scientist consciously strives for innovation.
It should be noted that "what is the first matter of the world?", "what is an object?", "what is movement?", "what is mind?" Universal problems like this can define only the boundaries of certain disciplines, but it is not considered the initial stage of scientific research.
It goes without saying that not every problem is scientific. Scientific problems differ from other types of problems in that they are based on scientific principles and are studied using scientific methods mainly in order to expand scientific knowledge.
There is no general method for creating problems that have deep, effective solutions. Nevertheless, the history of science shows that, in many cases, profound scientific and practical problems have arisen during the realization of the following four goals:
1) it is necessary to take a critical approach to the proposed solutions to the previously set problems, even if these solutions seem obvious at first glance; in any case, it is possible to find some shortcomings or at least to generalize the found solution and make it specific for a certain situation;
2) it is necessary to apply certain solutions to new situations, to evaluate their validity or invalidity: if the solution to the problem remains valid, as a result, not only solutions, but also problems are generalized, if the solution is invalid, a new set of problems arises will come;
3) it is necessary to try to generalize certain problems by moving them to new areas or introducing another indicator;
4) it is necessary to connect the existence of the problem with knowledge in other fields of knowledge, to try to study the problems in a comprehensive manner.
In general, the selection of problems is creative, where intuition and experience work more than methodology.
A scientific problem, like a didactic system, is based on the laws of creative assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity, it is one of the effective means of developing creative thinking, which is important in the process of knowledge and practical activity.
The scientific problem includes consistency of knowledge, harmonization of their fundamentality and specialization, use of methods of related sciences, development of skills of scientific generalization and systematization of knowledge, as well as critical analysis of studied issues. It encourages expansion and deepening of knowledge, increases interest in independently posing new problems, searching for and finding their solutions. At the same time, the scientific problem creates the necessary intellectual tension, overcomes difficulties in the cognitive process, and forms creative thinking skills.
The main task is to find, differentiate and clearly define problems that are relevant to this or that topic. A well-designed and well-defined problem can be both scientifically and creatively compelling.
The scientific problem loses its purely informative nature, ceases to consist of providing ready-made knowledge, and becomes a process of searching for new knowledge, real creative knowledge. In today's conditions, when the amount of knowledge needed by a person is increasing rapidly, it is not enough to aim at mastering a certain amount of evidence. It is important to supplement one's knowledge independently, to form the skill of targeting in the lively flow of scientific and political information. From these principles comes the conclusion that it is not a simple collection of knowledge that a person has in the present era, but his knowledge in harmony with his creative ability and ideological belief is the main criterion of an all-round mature person.
The problem situation and its importance. A situation in which existing action strategies and past experience do not allow a person to overcome a problem, and a completely new strategy is required, is usually called a problem situation. A problem situation is a situation in which the identified evidence cannot be explained within the framework of existing knowledge. The path to scientific discovery begins with the identification of a problem situation, goes through its description, and ends with finding a solution to this situation.
The emergence of a problematic situation is determined by various factors. First of all, it occurs when the evidence cannot be described using existing theoretical knowledge. The problematic situation here is largely influenced by objectively existing phenomena that are not yet clear to us. However, the problematic situation can sometimes be related to the development and expansion of an existing theoretical program.
The problematic situation is subjective in form, but objective in content. In practice, it appears in front of the researcher in the form of a combination of theoretical knowledge that has been confirmed with new results of observations and experiments expressed in the form of empirical knowledge - proofs and laws. Often, a problematic situation manifests itself in terms of practical or theoretical interests of society. It is prepared by the development process of material and spiritual culture, including the development of the theory and practice of science, the attitude of the state and society to it, and the interest of the state and society in solving it. The socio-historical environment has a significant influence on the identification and resolution of the problem situation. It can create opportunities for scientific discovery, but it can also hinder its acquisition.
In a problematic situation, the unique characteristics of a scientist, such as: his level of professional training, his ability to focus on a problem, his ability to move away from hardened old views, the sharpness of his mind, etc., are particularly evident.
In the analysis of the problematic situation, it is necessary to study personal and psychological issues, because the scientist experiences this situation himself, and the scientist's intuition, way of thinking, etc. are manifested in it.
The ultimate basis of the problematic situation is practice. It is clear that our knowledge about the object is insufficient, "negative" results are obtained, the practice causes new problems to arise. It should not be forgotten that science has relative independence, internal logic of its development, internal contradictions, and these factors also create problematic situations.
A hypothesis is a reasonable assumption that there is a law that explains the nature of new evidence. A hypothesis is put forward by scientists in order to provide an approximate explanation of the scientific evidence that led to the setting of a scientific problem. A hypothesis must be testable, it must have consequences that allow for empirical testing. If such verification is not possible, the hypothesis is scientifically unfounded.
The hypothesis should be free of formal-logical contradictions and have internal consistency. One of the criteria for evaluating a hypothesis is its ability to explain as many consequences as possible from scientific evidence. However, a hypothesis that explains the evidence associated with posing a scientific problem cannot be scientifically valid.
Hypothesis predicts previously unknown things and phenomena, the emergence of new scientific evidence that has not yet been determined in the course of empirical research. The hypothesis should be as simple as possible. It explains a large number of phenomena with a small number of premises. It should not contain redundant hypotheses that are not related to the need to explain the scientific evidence and the consequences arising from the hypothesis itself. No matter how valid a hypothesis is, it does not become a theory. For this reason, the next stage of scientific knowledge - substantiating the validity of a hypothesis - is a complex process, which implies that the consequences arising from this hypothesis should be confirmed as much as possible. For this purpose, observations and experiments are conducted, new evidence obtained is compared with the consequences arising from the hypothesis. The more empirically confirmed the results, the less likely they are derived from another hypothesis. The most convincing confirmation of a hypothesis is the discovery of new scientific evidence in the process of empirical research that confirms the consequences predicted by the hypothesis. Thus, a hypothesis that has been thoroughly tested and confirmed in practice becomes a theory.
A theory is a logically based and practically tested system of knowledge about a certain group of phenomena, the nature of the phenomena in this group and the laws of existence that apply to them. It is formed as a result of the interpretation of the general laws of nature and society, which illuminate the content of the studied phenomena. A hypothesis includes a set of ideas aimed at explaining or interpreting a particular part of existence. The theory includes all the elements that exist as its foundations and determine its occurrence. The initial theoretical basis, i.e., a large number of principles, axioms, and laws that make up the general idea of the object of research, the ideal model of the object, are an integral part of the theory. The theoretical model is also a program of future research based on a framework of basic theoretical principles.
Theory performs important functions such as explanation, prediction, practical testing, and synthesis. A theory organizes the system of scientific evidence, integrates it into its own structure, and creates new evidence as a consequence of the laws and principles that constitute it. A well-developed theory will be able to predict phenomena and properties unknown to science. The theory serves as the basis of people's practical activities, guides them in the world of natural and social phenomena. In the theory, scientific ideas, that is, knowledge about the fundamental laws operating within the set of objects reflected in it, occupy a central place. A scientific idea combines the laws, principles and concepts that make up this theory into a logically coherent whole system.
A theory has the ability to access other theories and thereby reconstruct them. It encourages the unification of various theories and their transformation into a system that forms the core of the scientific worldview. The theory lays the foundation for new ideas that can define the way of thinking of an entire era. In the process of its formation, the theory relies on the existing system of principles, categories and laws and discovers new principles, categories and laws.
Principles are basic theoretical knowledge, guiding ideas that serve as guidelines for explaining scientific evidence. As principles, including unprovable and unprovable axioms, postulates can be used.
Categories are general concepts that reflect the most important aspects, properties and relationships of existence. Science categories can be defined in the same way. However, in contrast to philosophical categories, which have a general nature, the categories of science reflect the properties of a certain part of the being, not the whole being.
The laws of science illuminate necessary, important, stable, recurring relationships between phenomena. These may be the laws of action and development of phenomena. Knowing the laws of nature, society and human thinking is an important task of science. It covers the path from the illumination of the general and important aspects of the studied phenomena recorded in concepts and categories to the determination of their stable, repetitive, important and necessary connections. The system of laws and categories of science is its paradigm.
A paradigm is a set of stable principles, general norms, laws, theories and methods that determine its development in a certain period of the history of science. It is recognized by the entire scientific community as a model that determines the methods of setting and solving tasks that arise at this level of science. Paradigm guides the interpretation of the results of research activities, scientific experiments, provides the prediction of new evidence and theories. It rejects concepts that do not correspond to it and serves as a template for solving research tasks. The concept of paradigm was introduced into the theory of knowledge by the American philosopher T. Kuhn. According to him, it is typical to solve certain tasks based on the scientific paradigm belonging to "normal science". Normal periods in the development of science alternate with revolutions. They are associated with the discovery of phenomena that do not fit into the framework of the old paradigm. As a result, a period of crisis in science begins, which ends with the old paradigm losing its importance and the emergence of a new paradigm. The establishment of a new paradigm will cause a revolution in science.
Thought and its essence. People are always thinking about something. A mindless state, according to psychologists, is a state of thinking about practically nothing at all. The dialectical way of knowing leads from knowing through the senses, from identifying facts to logical thinking. Thinking is a coherent, indirect and general reflection of the important properties and relationships of people. Creative thinking focuses on obtaining new results in practice, science, and technology. Thinking is an active process of posing problems and solving them. Diligence is an important sign of a thinking person. At the heart of the transition from intuition to thought is the expression of the internal and external essence of the object of knowledge, the division into individual and general. Indeed, scientific and philosophical knowledge does not consist only of intuition and imagination: no matter how beautiful the perception of intuition is, it is poor in content - it does not illuminate the essence of things.
Commonality in things is primarily a set of important properties and relationships. It is known that they are not clearly visible like some objects, they cannot be perceived directly. The external aspect of things and events is mainly determined by practical observation and empirical knowledge, while the essence and general aspects of things are determined using concepts and logical thinking. In thinking, concepts do not have direct contact with things. We can understand things that we cannot perceive.
Our small number of sensory organs, which have a special structure, do not set the absolute limits of knowledge, to which the activity of theoretical thinking is added. Human thought passes through the outer shell of phenomena and enters into the object. On the basis of information and empirical experience determined at the level of intuition, thinking actively compares the instructions of the senses with all the knowledge available in the brain of this individual, in addition to the general experience and knowledge of humanity, to the extent that they become the wealth of this person, and through phenomena, a deeper essence can understand and solve practical and theoretical problems.
Logical thinking is the pursuit of another, deeper truth in accordance with the rules, laws and principles of thinking. The rules and laws of thinking make up the content of logic as a science. These rules and laws are intrinsic to thought. Logical laws - generalization of objective relationships of things based on practice. Therefore, the level of perfection of human thinking is determined by the extent to which its content corresponds to the content of objective existence. Our mind is subject to the logic of practical actions and the logic of things reflected in the system of spiritual culture. The thought process is actually formed not only in the brain of some individuals, but also in the entire history of culture. If the basic rules are correct, the logic of the thought is reflected in its reflection in the movement of concepts. When thinking deeply, a person obeys the laws of logic, does not violate any of its principles.
The complexity of the cross-cutting problems faced by modern science and technology required the active development of logic, bringing the logical apparatus of thinking into a state consistent with the increased requirements of cybernetics technology in particular. This important need determined the emergence of new directions in logic - polysemous, probable and other logical sciences, brought formal logic closer to mathematics and caused the emergence of mathematical logic.
The connection of objective processes of existence, their development constitutes a unique "logic of things", objective logic. This logic is reflected in our thinking in the form of the connection of concepts - this logic of the subject is the logic of thinking. The logic of our thoughts is determined by the fact that we connect things as they are connected in practice. Just as existence obeys the laws of dialectics, the logic of human thinking must also obey these laws.
Unity of thought and being. There is unity between thought and being. At the heart of their unity of thought lies social practice that forms logical forms and laws of thought. The difference between logical laws and objective general laws of world development is that a person can apply logical laws consciously, while in nature, the laws of world development make their way unconsciously.
A person ultimately receives all knowledge about the world around him through his senses. However, they are also the source of some false ideas, such as the flat structure of the Earth and the rotation of the Sun around the Earth. This often led to mistrust of information from the sense organs, leading rationalists to downplay the role of these organs in cognition and to note that thought plays the main role in cognition. However, empiricists dispute this view, noting that more thinking leads to errors in cognition. According to them, the animal cannot deviate from the ways of nature: at the root of its motives lie things perceived through the senses. Animals do not invent anything, and therefore they do not fall into a state of insanity. And man becomes a victim of all kinds of illusions.
Empiricism, which absolutizes the role of knowledge at the level of intuition and does not believe in abstract theoretical thinking, hinders the development of scientific knowledge. Experts note that ancient mathematicians, philosophers, Pythagoreans, who opposed the introduction of irrational, sometimes fractional numbers into mathematics, tried to prove their opinion by the uncertainty of these numbers. Such ideas led the Greeks to reject algebra as a science, which was one of the reasons why the analytical methods of mathematics remained behind the times until the Renaissance. Ancient thinkers noted that what is not in intuition is not in thought. The thinking process cannot function without relying on sensory elements in the form of models, schemas, natural, artificial language, etc.
Basic forms of thinking. The rational content of the thought process is wrapped in a shell of logical forms created in the course of historical development. Thinking in its basic forms - concepts, judgments and conclusions - has arisen, is developing and is being implemented.
A concept is an idea that reflects general, important properties and relationships of things and events. A concept is a product of thinking and understanding. They not only reflect the general aspects of things and events, but also distinguish them from each other, group and classify them based on the differences between them. Also, when we say that we have an understanding of something, we mean that we understand the essence of that object. For example, the concept of "man" reflects not only an important general aspect, that is, common to all people, but also the difference of any person from all other things, and the understanding of the essence of this person is the essence of a person in general, that is, the concept of a person. implies knowing the content: "Man is a biosocial being with the ability to reason, speak and work."
Unlike intuition, perception, and imagination, concepts are devoid of visuality or emotion. Perception reflects the trees, understanding - the tree in general. The content of the concept is often impossible to imagine in the form of a clear image. A person can, for example, imagine a good person, but he cannot imagine concepts and processes such as good, evil, beauty, law, speed of light, reason, value in the form of a sense image. The same can be said about all the concepts of any science. Their objective definition is implicitly determined beyond the limits of demonstrability.
A concept identifies important aspects and properties and embodies them: a concept is an image of essence expressed in thought. That is why a small number of concepts cover countless things - properties and relations. Concepts have been different in content in different periods. They are different at different levels of development of the same person.
A true culture of scientific thinking considers it a rule not to leave any concept without a clear definition. The great thinker Socrates said that logically precise definition of concepts is the main condition of true knowledge.
Concepts arise and exist in a certain connection in the human mind, in the form of considerations. Thinking means making judgments about something, identifying certain connections and relationships between different aspects of things or between things.
Reasoning is a form of thought in which an idea about something is confirmed (or rejected) by connecting concepts. For example, such a statement as "Poplar is a plant" expresses an opinion about the poplar being a plant. Where there is confirmation or denial, forgery or authenticity, as well as possible captures, we face judgments.
If our mind had only images, concepts in their own right, and they were not logically connected to each other, there would be no thought process. It is known that the life of the word is real only in speech. Likewise, concepts "live" only in their context. One concept is equivalent to an artificial "drug", for example, a cell isolated from an organism. Thinking means making a conclusion about something. In this case, a concept that we cannot express in the form of reasoning will not have a logical meaning for us.
It can be said that a judgment (or judgments) is a concept expressed in a broad sense, and the concept itself is a narrowed judgment (or judgments). Arguments about what is higher - understanding or reasoning - are scholastic and therefore fruitless.
A sentence, which is a direct, materialized expression of an idea, is a verbal form of expressing an opinion. Any judgment is the union of the subject with the predicate, that is, the thing or event being described. Therefore, the types of judgments that do not appear in logic are related to possible modifications of the subject, the predicate, and the relationship between them. We say: "Fire burns." This is a sentence in which the subject is logically connected to the predicate. Both fire and burning can be felt, but our mind understands the connection between them.
Depending on the change of the subject, sentences can be impersonal, for example: "It's dawn", "I'm not in the mood". Single, individual and general sentences are distinguished: "Newton discovered the law of gravitation", "Some people have evil intentions", "Bone is one of the active tissues". The sentences are affirmative and negative: "Your body gets its strength from plant juices", "Planets are not stars".
A person can come to this or that conclusion by directly observing some evidence or indirectly - by making a conclusion.
Thinking is not just thinking. Concepts and opinions do not have a special place in the process of thinking. They are the links of the chain of more complex movements of the mind - observation.
A conclusion is a relatively complete unit of observation. In the process of observation, a new conclusion is drawn from the existing ones. Drawing a conclusion is such an act of thinking, in which a new opinion is created by comparing some ideas.
Through the deep knowledge of things, their properties and relationships, a person can sometimes go beyond the boundaries of the present and look into the mysterious future, foresee things that are not yet known, and predict events that are likely to happen and are inevitable. possible
Forecasting is the highest level of "making the complicated simple." The development of scientific knowledge is associated with the growth of the power of scientific prediction and the expansion of the boundaries of this phenomenon. Forecasting makes it possible to control and manage processes. Scientific knowledge provides an opportunity not only to predict the future, but also to consciously shape this future. The life content of any science can be described in this way: to predict, you need to know, to do, you need to predict. For example, DIMendeleyev predicted the existence of chemical elements discovered a hundred years later.
Unity of emotional, empirical and rational cognition. A large body of evidence suggests that sensory and rational cognition are not only interrelated, but also mutually exclusive. The human psyche is a complex system with numerous chains of mutual determination. Therefore, the content of intuition is determined not only by the external influencing force, but also by the state of thinking, memory, and imagination. Things that can be sensed and thought are mutually exclusive.
Let's say we are interested in the mental image of a yellow, round and sweet "apple". Three concepts are clearly visible here: the concept of color, the concept of geometric shape, and the concept of taste. The concept of color covers various colors, but in this case only yellow is among them. The concept of taste is represented by the concept of "sweet". The mental image of an apple acts as an intersection of numerous concepts and their perceptual indicators.
If we represent concepts with lines, and the forms of perception with points, then the mental image of any object acts as the center of intersection of lines and points.
Sensing and thinking forms of knowing form a whole at the point of intersection. Synthesis of the concept of "apple" and the idea of an apple as a whole mental image of "this apple" is valid. The concept of an apple is not exactly a holistic mental image of "this" apple. The image of an apple does not create an image of an apple. Only together, mixed with each other, the concept of an apple and the image of an apple create a complete mental image of "this apple".
A separate term is needed to express the unity of knowing through the senses and rationally. The term "eidos" used in ancient philosophy and literature is, in our opinion, the most convenient and precise term to express the unity of knowing through the senses and rationally. Eidos means "appearance, image". In ancient philosophy, eidos often meant thinking and things that can be seen. The term "eidos" is usually used when talking about things that can be known through the senses and the mind.
Knowing consists not only of things that can be sensed and understood, but also of eidos. The most complete mental image of the event is the eidos.
Criteria for distinguishing empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge. There is a great deal of methodological literature on the problem of theoretical and empirical objects and phenomena. These levels of knowledge were identified in the 30s of the XNUMXth century as a result of the analysis of the language of science in the teaching of positivism, the differences in the meaning of empirical and theoretical terms. This distinction also applies to research tools. However, in addition, taking into account the nature of the research subject and the diversity of its study methods, two levels of scientific knowledge can be distinguished.
Let's take a closer look at these differences. Specific features of theoretical and empirical research tools are shown in the following. At the heart of empirical research lies the direct contact of the researcher with the object under study. It involves making observations and conducting experiments. Therefore, empirical research includes instruments, devices and other tools in practice observation and experiment observation.
In theoretical study, the researcher does not have direct contact with the objects. At this level, the object can be studied only indirectly, not in practice, but in an experiment carried out by thinking.
In addition to tools related to the organization of experiments and observations, the apparatus of concepts is also used in empirical research. Concepts operate here as a separate language, often called the empirical language of science. This language has a more complex structure, in which empirical terms and theoretical language terms interact.
Empirical terms refer to particular abstractions that can be called empirical objects. They should be distinguished from objects of existence. Empirical objects are abstractions that actually have some set of properties and relationships of objects. The objects of existence appear in the image of ideal objects, which are precisely recorded and have a limited set of signs in empirical knowledge.
As for theoretical knowledge, other research tools are used. There are no means of material, practical interaction with the studied object. However, the language of theoretical research is also different from the language of empirical descriptions. It is based on theoretical terms meaning theoretical ideal objects. They are also called idealized objects, abstract objects, or theoretical constructs. They are separate abstractions that are logical reconstructions of existence. No theory can be created without the help of such objects.
Empirical and theoretical types of knowledge differ not only in the means of research activity, but also in terms of methods. At the empirical level, the main methods used are experimentation and observation. Empirical description methods aimed at objective description of the studied phenomena are also important here.
As for knowing at the theoretical level, there are separate methods, such as: idealization (the method of creating an idealized object); conducting theoretical experiments with idealized objects; special methods of theory creation (rising from the abstract to the specific, axiomatic and hypothetical-deductive methods); logical and historical methods of study, etc. are used.
These specific features of methods and tools are related to the specificity of the subject of empirical and theoretical study. At each of these levels, the researcher may work with the same objective entity, but he studies this entity from different points of view, and therefore its expression in knowledge will have a different appearance.
Thus, empirical and theoretical knowledge differ from each other according to the subject, research tools and methods. However, distinguishing and considering each of them separately is an abstraction. In practice, these two layers of knowledge always interact.
Intuition is the ability to understand the truth directly without the help of logical arguments. It is always the product of a great work done by human mind and soul together. In this sense, only talented, hardworking and diligent people are able to know intuitively.
In the history of philosophy and natural science, the problem of intuition is characterized by different, sometimes mutually exclusive, approaches, perspectives and imaginations. Even in ancient philosophy, there were heated debates around this problem. Representatives of the Ionian philosophy viewed intuition as a form of direct knowledge, a form of knowing through the senses, while the representatives of the Eleutian school, as well as Leucippus and Democritus, rejected direct knowledge and knowledge through the senses and declared the senses false. In the interpretation of Socrates, intuition is "daemonic" or "possession of the idea of an object". Plato also believed that sensory perception is not real.
In the new era, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz created the doctrine of intellectual intuition. By intuition, Descartes understands a deep and intelligent mind, not the trust in the testimony of the senses and the deceptive reasoning of the disordered imagination. Spinoza considers intuition to be the most reliable knowledge that captures the essence of things. Sensualists promote intuition at the level of the senses, prioritizing direct cognition through the senses. According to J. Locke, the mind is just a mirror that continuously records the real results of the activity of the senses. This aspect of knowing cannot be denied: as soon as the mind directs its attention to it, it forces itself into direct perception, like the bright rays of the sun. There is no room left for hesitation, doubt, study: the mind is at once filled with its bright rays, it needs no proof or study, but perceives the truth only by focusing its attention on it.
German classical philosophy made an important contribution to the study of the problem. Kant rejects the ability of intellectual intuition and promotes the idea of pure apperception. However, Fichte later showed that Kant's pure apperception is actually intellectual intuition itself, which differs from Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz's intellectual intuition, which is regarded as the ability to know things that actually exist, in that Kant's intuition is aimed at knowing activity. Fichte himself understands intellectual intuition as knowing the activity of absolute things, not actually existing things. Schelling developed the direction of Kant-Fichte, filling their teaching with his transcendental idealism - his natural philosophy "to know the substance", putting the aesthetic imagination in the first place. Unlike the rationalists of the past, he looks for the causes of intuition in the activity of the mind, not in perception.
Hegel takes a critical approach to the teachings of his predecessors about intellectual intuition and develops dialectics as a logic and theory of knowledge. He turns philosophy into a science of thinking, creates a logical rational system based on pure thinking, so that in his teaching dialectics takes the place of intellectual intuition.
At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, various schools emerged: Husserl's phenomenological intuition (reduction), Bergson's intuitionism, Freud's subconscious intuition, and other directions. These schools understand intuition as an irrational act of knowing that combines instinct, subconscious phenomena, religious belief, etc. A characteristic feature of these trends is that they underestimate the role of mind and thinking through concepts in scientific knowledge of the world. Thinking is replaced by intuition, which allows us to grasp the subject "in its original state" without unnecessary rationalistic considerations.
Today, the ideas of irrationalism are developed by existentialism, neopositivism and some other directions of modern philosophy. For example, according to the existentialist Heidegger, "existence" cannot be logically understood. In Jaspers, faith, intuitively viewed mystical "revelation" comes first. Marcel advocates a fierce fight against the "spirit of abstractions". Englishmen Ross, Moore, Richard try to prove that it is possible to directly know material things with the help of some mystical intuition, bypassing the intuition and intellectual levels of knowledge.
Thus, in the past, philosophers understood intuition as the human ability to know the real being, and some of them (Spinoza) approached intuition as the highest form of reason, but today's intuitionists belittle or deny the role of reason, thinking, promote alogism and mystical irrationalism. they do.
Dialectic understood as logic provides an opportunity for a critical approach to the formation of intuition and its results. Although intuition points to the important points of a deductive theory, it does not relieve us of the need to prove them. Intuition as direct, unexpected and unconscious knowledge occurs not in a dry place, but in the presence of certain foundations that determine the solution of tasks, finding a solution "intuitively". However, the results of intuition should be checked in the fields of knowledge where appropriate conditions exist. For example, the results obtained in mathematics and physics can only be verified by experiment.
The human psyche operates as a continuous process of creating new forms of emotional, rational and eidetic knowledge. The English scientist G. Wallace noted the following stages of preparation, maturation, understanding and verification of the processes of spiritual creation. An important stage of creativity is the intuitive perception and understanding of the novelty. Intuition is unexpected direct knowledge.
Conclusions. The rapid development of human knowledge sets the task of learning to create. The science of creative activity and learning methods is called heuristics. Conversations in scientific circles, exchange of ideas, discussions, analysis of problematic situations - help the development of a person's spiritual and creative abilities. Intuition and creativity cannot be described by means of formal logic, but through heuristic methods, research is conducted on innovation that requires the mobilization of the subject's talent, memory, intelligence, and imagination. Inductive thinking is a heuristic method of applying the knowledge obtained by studying a part of the phenomena to the entire series of phenomena. Thinking by analogy is also a heuristic method of observation that does not guarantee the truth, but is also not a simple hypothesis. Mathematical modeling is also a heuristic method. All principles of science have a heuristic content. For example, the principle of compatibility is used in physics: there should be compatibility between the old and new theory, the mathematical apparatus of the new theory should correspond to the old theory to some extent. Philosophy has a heuristic nature, therefore, the acquisition of high peaks is one of the most effective means of realizing intuition and creativity.
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