SHARE WITH FRIENDS:
The main logical forms of thinking: understanding, judgment
Plan:
1. The content and size of the concept, their interrelationship.
2. Concept types and relationships between them.
3. Composition of the sentence and its main types.
4. Relations between judgments.
1. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects general, important features of objects and events.
Signs are the aspects and features that distinguish objects from each other and express their similarity to each other. Each object has many symbols because it is in contact (directly or indirectly) with other objects in the universe. Some of them are characteristic of only one object and constitute its individual, singular signs, while others belong to a certain group of objects and are general signs. For example, each person has unique spiritual experiences and such individual characteristics. At the same time, it has general characteristics that are characteristic of a certain group of people (belonging to the labor team, nation, etc.) or to all people (ability to work, think, participate in social relations, etc.).
Some of the individual and general signs are necessary for the existence of the object and express its nature and essence. Such signs are called important signs of the subject. For example, the existence of a state requires that it has its own territory, population, and authorities.
Insignificant characters do not constitute the essence of the subject. With their disappearance, the nature of the subject does not change. For example, what race, nationality, gender one belongs to is not important for an individual to exist as a human being.
It should also be said that whether the sign of the subject is important or unimportant depends on how we relate to the subject in practice. In particular, traits that are not important in one relationship may be important in another. For example, a person's ability is important to what career he chooses, but not to his existence as a human being. Such important signs are called important signs of the subject in a certain relationship, and differ from objectively significant signs (signs that are necessarily related to the existence of the subject).
Finally, since the object is in constant movement, development, its significant sign can become an insignificant sign over time, or, conversely, an insignificant sign can become an important sign.
For example, directly observable facts are important at the stage of empirical knowledge, but less often at the stage of theoretical knowledge.
So, in the concept, the subject is thought through its important signs, and these signs can be general and individual signs of the subject. For example, in the concept of "Hamza Hakimzada Niyazi", in addition to the general features of the subject (man, writer), individual important features (in particular, the author of the drama "Boy ila Servant") are considered.
It is necessary to pay special attention to the fact that the concept is fundamentally different from the forms of emotional cognition. Intuition, perception, and imagination are vivid images of an object. We can only perceive or have an idea about a concrete object, for example, a pen with which we are writing. "The pen at all" cannot be perceived. A concept is not a concrete image of an object, but an abstract image. The concept of a pen includes all concrete pens, discarding the individual signs characteristic of each of them, and expressing their general, important signs. At the same time, these characters also serve as specific features that distinguish a pen from other objects, such as a book.
As the concept deviates from the non-essential features of the object, it cannot fully reflect it. In this sense, it stands far from existence in relation to sensory forms of cognition. However, the concept expresses the existence more deeply and fully compared to the forms of emotional knowledge by perceiving the important signs of the object and reflecting its essence.
Concepts, unlike emotional forms of cognition, are not directly reflected in the human brain. It is generated using certain logical methods. These methods consist of comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization.
With the help of comparison, objects are compared with each other, and their similar, common aspects and individual characteristics that differ from each other are determined.
Comparison requires analysis. The objects cannot be compared as a whole. They should be compared according to one or another property. For this purpose, those properties should be separated. with the help of analysis, the subject is divided into parts and sides that make up the subject, and each of them is studied separately.
Synthesis is a method opposite to analysis, which consists in bringing the subject into a whole by mentally combining the parts and aspects separated during the analysis. Without synthesis, it is impossible to form a comprehensive opinion about the subject. Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked.
In order to create a concept, it is necessary to separate the important general and individual signs of the subject, determined by the above methods, and exclude the unimportant ones. This is done with the help of abstraction.
In generalization, objects are combined into classes according to some of their common, important characteristics, and thus it is possible to think of all objects of the same kind in one concept.
The formation of the concept is inextricably linked with the word. The connection between them is a concrete manifestation of the connection between thought and language.
Concepts are expressed using words and phrases. For example, it consists of such words as "student", "faculty of history", "National University of Uzbekistan". But it should not be concluded that the concept and the word are exactly the same. The same concept is expressed in different languages, sometimes even in the same language with different words. The phenomena of homonyms and synonyms in our language indicate the relatively independent existence of words and concepts.
It should also be said that the word having multiple meanings sometimes leads to confusion of concepts in the process of thinking. That is why more terms are used in science and technology. A term is a word that expresses strictly one concept and is used in the same sense in a certain field of scientific knowledge.
The concept has its own content and size. The content of the concept is a set of important features of the subject under consideration. For example, the content of the concept of "science" is formed by the important signs of science, that is, its connection with practice, the system of objective true (real) knowledge in the form of concepts, laws, principles related to any field of subjects, participation in the formation of worldview, and so on. does.
The volume of the concept consists of the sum of the objects that are considered in it. For example, the scope of the above-mentioned concept of "science" covers all existing sciences: mathematics, physics, logic, etc.
The content and volume of the concept are inextricably linked, and it is expressed using the law of inverse proportion between the content and volume of the concept. According to this law, if the scope of the concept is expanded, its content will be narrowed, and vice versa, if its size is narrowed, its content will be expanded. For example, by adding the sign of "belonging to logic" to the content of the concept of "Science", it is transferred to the concept of "logical science", which is narrower in scope.
By expanding the scope of the concept of "science", the concept of "form of social consciousness" is created, which is narrower in terms of content. In this case, specific signs that are unique to science and not in other forms of social consciousness, such as art, are excluded from the content of the concept.
This law is based on a series of logical operations carried out with concepts.
2. In logic, concepts are divided into several types according to their content and size. In particular, individual and general concepts are distinguished according to their size.
In the scope of a single concept, one subject is considered. For example, "Planet Earth", "UzMU main library" and so on are individual concepts. Common concepts represent a group of subjects. The concepts of "Planet", "Library" are general concepts. The number of subjects reflecting general concepts can be limited or unlimited. For example, the number of subjects considered in the concept of "chemical element" is limited. They can be considered. The number of objects that make up the concept of "star" is unlimited and cannot be counted.
It is also important to distinguish between subtractive and additive concepts in the process of thinking. A distinguishing concept is such a general concept that it is characteristic of each subject of the given class. For example, the idea that "UzMU students are studying the materials of the first session of the second convocation of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan" belongs to every student of UzMU. So, the concept of "UzMU students" is a subtractive concept here. In the opinion that "UzMU students are discussing the results of the first session of the second convocation of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan", the concept of "UzMU students" is a gathering concept. does, because the point is made relative to their set.
According to the content, concepts are divided into abstract and concrete concepts. In concrete concepts, the object is thought together with its signs. In abstract concepts, the signs of the object are separated from it and reflected separately. For example, the concepts of "Man", "Nature" are concrete concepts, the concepts of "heroism" (represents a characteristic of a person), "Beauty" (represents a characteristic of existing objects) are abstract concepts.
According to the content, it is also possible to distinguish non-proportional and relative concepts. Incommensurate concepts reflect relatively independent, separately existing objects. "State", "Work of art" are such concepts.
Relative concepts reflect objects that necessarily require the existence of each other. For example, the concepts of "Teacher" and "Student", "Positive character" and "Negative character", "Cause" and "Consequence" are relative concepts.
In some cases, positive and negative concepts are also distinguished. In the content of positive concepts, the subject is thought through its specific signs, while in the content of negative concepts, the subject is thought through signs that are not characteristic of it. For example, "Elite person", "Conscientious person" are positive concepts, "Illiterate person", "Unscrupulous person" are negative concepts.
We have already introduced several types of concepts. Determining which of these types a concept belongs to means giving it a logical description. For example, "Student" is a general, subtractive, limited, concrete, disproportionate, positive concept; "A. The state library of Uzbekistan named Navoi" is a single, collecting, limited, concrete, disproportionate, positive concept.
Since all objects and events in the objective world are interconnected, the concepts that reflect them also exist in a certain relationship. These relations are different, and in order to define them, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between comparable and non-comparable concepts.
Comparable concepts are concepts that have common features and are close to each other in terms of content and size. For example, the concepts of "Metallurgist" and "Worker" are such comparable concepts.
Non-comparable concepts are concepts that reflect objects that are distantly related to each other, and in many cases have no common feature other than being material or ideal. The concepts of "Social progress" and "Venus star", "Ideal gas" and "Beauty" are considered incommensurable concepts. In logic, logical relations between incomparable concepts are not studied. Comparable concepts are compressible and non-compressible in terms of volume.
The size of the concepts that fit together are completely, completely or partially compatible with each other. There are three types of relationships between them: compatibility, partial compatibility and subordination. Concepts in relation of compatibility are concepts reflecting one subject (class of subjects) and they differ from each other only in their content. For example,
The concepts of "IA Karimov", "President of the Republic of Uzbekistan" exist in the same relationship. This can be shown using the following scheme.
AI.A. Karimov.
President of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
The scope of concepts in the relationship of partial compatibility has a partial commonality. For example:
A-Sportsman.
V-Student.
The dashed part of the circles indicates those who are both athletes and students at the same time.
In the relationship of subordination, the volume of one of the concepts completely penetrates into the volume of the other and is considered as its constituent part. For example:
A-Science.
V-Logic.
One of the concepts in this relation is the subordinate (A) and the other (V) is subordinate, and they are in a gender-species relationship. The genus concept reflects a class of objects, and the species concept reflects a group or one of the objects belonging to this class. In logic, the fact that this or that concept is a genus or species has a relative character. Each concept is a species with respect to a more general concept, a genus with respect to a less general concept. For example, there is the following relationship between the concepts of national idea, idea, and thought: the concept of "Foya" is a species compared to the concept of "Idea", and the concept of "National Idea" is a gender.
Inexhaustible concepts are concepts that have no commonality in terms of size and represent different objects or groups of objects belonging to the same class. That's all they have in common. There are also three kinds of relations between these concepts: co-subordination, opposition, contradiction.
A mutual subordination relationship exists between the following concepts.
A-Science.
V-Logic.
S-Physics.
In this case, the concepts of "Logic" and "Physics" are subordinate to the concept of "Science" in terms of their size. The volumes of concepts in relation to opposition are mutually exclusive. They reflect opposite signs of an object (a group of objects), that is, one expresses a certain sign of the object, and the other reflects another sign that negates it. Concepts in the relationship of opposition cannot fully occupy the scope of the concept to which they are subordinated. For example, the concepts "Tall man" and "Short man" cannot fully cover the scope of the concept "Man".
A-Adam A
V-A tall man.
S-Short man.
If one of the concepts in the relation of contradiction expresses a feature of the object, the other negates it and remains ambiguous in terms of content. Concepts in the relationship of contradiction, unlike concepts in the relationship of opposition, completely cover the scope of the subordinating concept. For example,
AA
A-Man.
V-A tall man.
S-Not tall o dam.
Determining the relationship between concepts helps clarify their content and size, connect them, and move from one form of thought to another form of thought. For example, based on the definition of the relationship between the concepts of "Student" and "Excellent", it is possible to form an opinion in the form of an opinion that "Some students are excellent"
Logical operations with concepts are as follows:
1. Definition and generalization of concepts.
2. Dividing concepts. Classification.
3. Definition of concepts. Methods similar to description.
4. Actions on classes.
3. Judgment is a form of thinking that expresses the characteristic or non-characteristic of a certain property, relationship to the object.
The main task of the sentence is to show the relationship between the subject and its characteristics. That is why it always consists of an affirmative or negative opinion. In the process of thinking, we learn about the simple, external properties of objects and events, as well as their internal, necessary connections and relationships. By successively studying the properties of objects and events, we create various abstractions about them. These abstractions are expressed using sentences. As our knowledge is different, the judgments that represent it will also be different. Some judgments express specific, verified knowledge, while others assume the characteristic of the object, that is, vague knowledge is expressed.
Judgments are relatively complete thoughts. In it, knowledge about a concrete object and its concrete sign was expressed.
Judgments are true, false and uncertain (perhaps approximate) according to the degree of conformity to reality. Judgments that correspond to objective reality and correctly express it are true, and those that do not correspond to it are false. At the same time, there are judgments that cannot be determined either true or false - ambiguous judgments.
Sentences are expressed in language through sentences. A sentence is a logical category, while a sentence is a grammatical category. Sentences are mainly expressed through a sentence. Only in figurative sentences is the opinion affirmative or negative.
For example, sayings such as "Time does not go back", "Life is a movement" express judgment.
Simple judgments
Sentences are simple and complex according to their structure. A simple sentence refers to an opinion that cannot be separated from another sentence. A sentence that can be divided into two or more sentences is called a complex sentence. For example, the statement "The study of logic forms a culture of correct thinking" represents a simple judgment. The statement that "the science of logic studies the forms and laws of thought" is a complex statement. The composition of this reasoning consists of two simple sentences: "The science of logic studies the forms of thinking" and "The science of logic studies the laws of thinking."
It is possible to distinguish logical and logical sections in the structure of reasoning (judgment). Logical owner-subject (S) refers to the object and event under consideration. Logical clause-predicate (P) indicates a characteristic of the subject, a relationship. The perception of the subject is enriched due to the knowledge expressed in the predicate. The subject and predicate of the sentence are called its terms.
The third essential element of judgment is logical connection. It connects the subject and the predicate with each other, resulting in a sentence. The formula of a simple fixed sentence is written as follows: SP.
Ordinary judgments are divided into types according to their quality and quantity. Affirmative and negative judgments differ according to their quality. The quality of the judgment is determined by the vantic connection. Affirmative judgments show that the sign is specific to the object, and negative sentences, on the contrary, show that it is not specific. For example, "A. Oripov is the author of the Anthem of the Republic of Uzbekistan" - affirmative verdict, "Mathematics is not a social science" - negative verdict. According to the amount, ordinary judgments are divided into single, general and partial judgments. It is based on the number of objects expressed in the subject, that is, its size.
In individual judgments, an opinion is expressed about whether a sign is specific to the subject or not. For example: "The Republic of Uzbekistan is an independent state", "Akhmedov is not a historian".
General judgments express the opinion that a sign applies or does not apply to all of a class of single objects or to every object in it. For example: "Everyone wants to be happy", and "No intelligent person wastes his time".
In subjective judgments, an opinion is expressed about whether or not a sign is characteristic of a part of a set of objects. For example: "Some philosophers are eloquent." "Most students are not lazy." The word "some" is used in Juzi judgments in the sense of "at least one, but all". Accordingly, the sentence "Some stones are not living things" is true, because no stone is a living thing.
In a sense, individual judgments can be equated with collective judgments. ×because in both judgments it is indicated that something applies or does not apply to each of the objects in the set. In single sentences, this collection consists of only one subject.
In determining the correctness or incorrectness of judgments and in some other cases, a combined classification (main types) of simple judgments in terms of quantity and quality is used. They consist of:
1. General affirmative judgments. They express an idea that is both general and affirmative at the same time. For example, "All students study logic." These judgments are denoted by the letter A in the Latin alphabet and are expressed by the formula "All are S-P".
2. General negative sentences express an idea that is both general and negative at the same time. For example, "No businessman works without a plan." This sentence is expressed by the formula "No SP" and is denoted by the Latin letter E.
3. Substantive affirmation refers to the opinion that judgments are both subjunctive and affirmative at the same time. For example, "Some students are responsible." It is denoted by the Latin letter I and is represented by the formula "Some SP is".
4. A partial negative sentence expresses an opinion that is both positive and negative at the same time. For example, "Some students do not play sports." Its formula is "Not some SP" and is denoted by the Latin letter O.
Size of terms in simple sentences. Due to the fact that the terms in simple sentences (S and P) are represented by concepts, it is possible to determine their mutual relations according to their size. In sentences, the terms (S and P) are taken in full or incomplete form. When a term is taken in its full size, its size will be exactly the same as the size of another term, or it will not match at all (their sizes are mutually exclusive). If the term is taken in an incomplete volume, then its volume partially corresponds to the volume of another or is partially excluded from it. In simple sentences, the size of the terms is as follows:
1. A — The subject of general affirmative judgments is always received in its entirety. The predicate is sometimes complete, sometimes incomplete. For example: "All people are living creatures."
The subject of this sentence is "Man", the predicate is the concept of "Living Being", and "Everyone" is the quantifier of generality. The subject of this sentence is taken in its entirety, because in it an opinion is expressed about all people, and this concept fully enters the scope of the concept of "living being". Its predicate is not taken in its entirety, because it refers to a part of living beings - people. The circular diagram of this is as follows: (Fig. 1).
P
SSP
Figure 1 Figure 2
In some general affirmative judgments, both S and R may be present in full. For example, "All Muslims believe in Islam" (Figure 2).
2. Yes – both the subject and the predicate of general negative sentences are taken in their entirety. For example, "No believer is without faith." In this sentence, S stands for believers, P stands for non-believers, and none is the generality quantifier. In this case, the size of both terms exclude each other (Fig. 3).
SP Figure 3
3. I – The subject of partial affirmative judgments is always incomplete, and the predicate is sometimes complete, sometimes incomplete. For example: "Some students know English." the terms of the sentence are as follows: S – students, R – English speakers, some – presence quantifier. In this sentence, both S and R are taken in an incomplete volume, and the volume of both terms partially matches each other (Fig. 4).
Figure 4 SP
Let's see another example: "Some doctors are surgeons." In this sentence, S is doctors, R is surgeons, some-existence quantifier. In the sentence, the subject is incomplete because it refers to some doctors, and the predicate is incomplete because all surgeons are doctors. Since the size of the predicate is included in the size of the subject, it is taken in full size (Fig. 5).
S
P
Figure 5.
4. O – The subject of partial negative sentences is always taken in the incomplete form, and the predicate in the full form. For example, "Some young people are not craftsmen." The terms of this judgment are S - youth, R - non-craftsmen, some - existence quantifier. The subject of the sentence is not taken in full, only a part of the youth is reflected in it. And the predicate of the sentence is taken in full. In it, all the artisans are commented (Fig. 6).
P
Figure 6
Summarizing the above points, it can be said that the subject of general judgments is always taken in full form, and the subject of partial judgments is taken in incomplete form. The predicate of negative sentences is always in full form. The predicate of affirmative sentences is complete only when R S, and in other cases it is incomplete.
Determining the size of terms in sentences is important for the correct construction of a strict syllogism and direct conclusion.
The size of the terms in simple sentences can be clearly expressed by the following scheme. Here, "+" means full size, "" means incomplete size.
Types of sentences
Sign The formula of the sentence The size of the terms The relation of the terms
SP in Mathematical Logic in Formal Logic
General affirmative judgment A All SP
S a P x(S(x)P(x)) + SP
General negative verdict Ye None S–P
S e P x(S(x)
+ + SP
Partial Affirmative Judgment I Certain S–R
S i P x(S(x) P(x)) — SP
Partial negative judgment O Not some S–P
S o R x(S(x)
— + SP
Types of simple sentences according to the content of the predicate. They include: attributive judgments, existence judgments, and relational judgments. In attributive (attribute and characteristic) judgments, it is clearly and strictly indicated whether a characteristic is specific to the object or not. Therefore, attributive judgments can be defined as judgments about the entry (belonging) or non-entry (non-belonging) of an object into a class.
For example: "All trees are plants" and "No plant is an animal." In the first sentence, an opinion is given that trees belong to the class of plants, while in the second sentence, an opinion is expressed that the class of plants and animals have nothing in common.
Judgments expressing the presence or absence of certain relations between two, three, etc. objects are called relational judgments. For example: "The whole is greater than the piece." "A number smaller than two or three." In the first sentence, the relation of "magnitude" is confirmed between the whole and the part, while in the second sentence, the opinion about the relationship between the number three and the number two is confirmed.
Attitude judgments are divided into types of affirmative or negative judgments according to their quality. Affirmative relation sentences express the opinion that objects are in a certain relation to each other. In the judgments of the negative relationship, the opinion is given that certain relations between objects do not exist.
Relationship judgments are also divided into types according to their amount. In particular, judgments of two-position relation are divided into individual-individual, general-general, specific-specific, individual-general, individual-partial, general-partial, partial-general types according to the quantity.
For example: "His brother is taller than his brother" (alone); "Each student of our group knows all the teachers in our faculty" (general-general); "Some students in our group are familiar with some Indian movie stars" (partially). "History teacher knows well every student in our group" (singular-general); "My friend can solve some problems" (singular); "All students in our group learn English" (common-singular); "Some students in our group learn French" (individual); "Some students in our group know every player of the Pakhtakor team" (partial-general).
Three-digit, four-digit, etc. attitude judgments are also divided into the same types as above.
In addition to attributive and relational sentences, existence sentences (There is a logic textbook in the library), objective sentences (in the form "AB") and modal sentences (It will probably rain) can be shown. In some textbooks, they are interpreted as simple strict judgment types. We will not consider these types of judgments separately, since existence judgments can often be interpreted as attributive judgments, and subjective judgments as relational judgments.
Also, distinguishing and exclusionary judgments are distinguished as simple judgment types. "Only 4 students from our group will participate in the competition." This is a discriminating judgment. There are enough textbooks for all taught subjects, except for the "History of Logic" course. This is an exclusionary judgment.
3. Complex judgments. If the terms of the sentence are more than one, it is called a complex sentence. Complex sentences are formed by combining two or more simple sentences by using logical conjunctions, negation and modal terms such as "and", "or", "if... then". According to the content of the logical connector, the following main types of complex sentences can be distinguished: unitary, subtractive, conditional, equivalent.
Connecting (conjunctive) sentences are sentences formed by connecting two or more simple sentences with the help of logical connectors such as "and", "and", "and". For example: 1.»The bell rang and the lesson started». 2. "A. Navoi was a poet and statesman. 3. "Muhammad Khorezmi and Ahmad Farghani made a great contribution to the development of mathematics."
The first unifying sentence is formed by connecting two independent simple sentences. In the second sentence, two simple sentences with the same subject are connected. In the third connecting sentence, two simple sentences with the same predicate are connected. In the Uzbek language, connecting sentences are also formed with conjunctions such as "ammo", "but", "but", and (,). Logical connections are represented by the conjunction symbol, «».
If we mark the simple sentences in the conjunctive (uniting) sentence with conditional symbols "r" and "q", then this sentence is expressed by the formula "pq". Simple sentences in a conjunctive sentence can be true or false. A conjunctive sentence is true when all the simple sentences in it are true. In all other cases, there will be an error. For example, since the first simple sentence in the sentence "Lying and stealing is a crime" is not true, this sentence is not true.
pqp q
Chin
Chin
right
the error is true
right
Chin
the error is true
right
right
right
A disjunctive sentence refers to a statement made up of simple sentences with the help of logical conjunctions "or", "or", "or". These conjunctions separate two simple sentences or several predicates or several subjects. For example: "Kadyrov is studying philosophy, or sociology, or psychology." "In the second hour there will be either mathematics or a foreign language lesson." Disjunctive conjunctions are represented by the disjunction symbol "V". Disjunctive sentences are divided into simple or strict types. In a simple disjunctive sentence, one or all of the simple sentences in the sentence can be true, while in a strict disjunctive sentence only one of the simple sentences in the sentence is true. A simple disjunctive sentence is defined by the formula (pq), and a strict disjunctive sentence is defined by the formula. The conditions for disjunctive sentences to be true are as follows:
pqr qpq
Chin
Chin
right
the error is true
right
Chin
the error is true
Chin
Chin
the error is true
Chin
right
the error is true
right
Chin
error error
Chin
Chin
right
"HH Niazi is a poet or dramatist." This is a simple disjunctive sentence. "Abdullayev will either win the competition or not." This is strictly a disjunctive sentence.
A conditional (implicative) sentence consists of a combination of two simple sentences through the logical connection "if...then". In order to determine the essence of a conditional sentence, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of necessary and sufficient conditions. A necessary condition of an event is a condition that ensures its existence. If the condition of the event is not necessary, the event will not occur. For example: "If a plant is left without water, it will wither."
A sufficient condition for an event is said to be the state in which that event is observed whenever that condition exists. For example: "If it rains, then the roof of the houses will be wet." Conditions can be "sufficient but not necessary", "necessary but not sufficient", "necessary and sufficient". For example: N being divisible by two and three is a necessary and sufficient condition for its divisible by six. That N is divisible by two is a necessary but not sufficient condition for it to be divisible by six. That N is divisible by ten is a sufficient but not necessary condition for it to be divisible by two.
In the composition of the conditional sentence, the parts of the basis and the result are different. The part of the conditional sentence between the words "If" and "then" is called the basis, and the part after the word "Then" is called the result. In the sentence "If it rains, then the roofs of the houses will be wet", the sentence "If it rains" is the basis, and the sentence "the roofs of the houses will be wet" is the result.
So, the event indicated in the basis, as a result of which the sentence represents a sufficient condition for the occurrence of the recorded event, is called a conditional sentence.
Conditional (implicit) sentences are represented by the logical conjunction "if ... then" (). In logic, the present tense is denoted by the symbol (). These symbols are called material implication symbols. A conditional sentence is called an implicative sentence. The basis of the implicative judgment is called antecedent, and the result is called consequent. An implicative sentence is true in all cases except when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false:
pqpq
Chin
Chin
right
the error is true
right
Chin
the error is true
right
Chin
Chin
Equivalence sentences are formed by connecting two simple sentences with the help of the logical conjunction "if and only if ... then". In natural language, the equivalence sentence is expressed in the form of a conditional sentence. In such cases, it will be necessary to determine whether the suspended sentence is an equivalent sentence. If the basis of a conditional sentence is considered a necessary and sufficient condition for the resulting opinion, then this sentence is an equivalent sentence. For example:" If the given integer is an even number, then it is divisible by two without a remainder."
The logical connector of an equivalent sentence is represented by the symbol (), that is, the sign of (substantive) equivalence. The conditions for an equivalent sentence to be true are as follows:
pqpq
Chin
Chin
right
the error is true
right
Chin
the error is true
right
right
Chin
4. Relationships between judgments (judgments).
Opinions (judgments), like concepts, are divided into comparable (having a common subject or predicate) and non-comparable types. Comparable considerations are compact or non-compact. In logic, if the truth of one of the two judgments (r and q) necessarily results from the error of the other, they are called incompatible judgments (judgments). Incompressible judgments cannot be true at the same time. Concise statements express exactly one idea in whole or in part. Concomitant judgments (judgments) are in the relation of mutual equivalence, logical subordination and partial correspondence (subcontrary).
Inconsistent judgments are in the relation of opposition (contrary) and contradiction (contra-dictory). Schematic expression of the relations between judgments (judgments) is called "logical square". Through the logical square, the truth relations between judgments (judgments) are determined.
A contrar Ye contradictor
bb
o' o'
yy
ss
ii
nn
ii
sh sh
I subcontractor O
For example, "Each society has its own moral norms." This is A general affirmative judgment (judgment). Ye, I, O are expressed as follows:
Eat. No society has its own moral norms.
I. Some societies have their own moral norms.
O. Some societies do not have their own moral standards.
These judgments are comparable judgments (judgments) and there is a specific relationship between them according to their truth.
There is opposition (contrar) and contradiction (contradiction) relations between incommensurable judgments (judgments). A relation of contradiction exists between general judgments which differ in their content, and according to this relation they cannot both be true at the same time. These judgments may be mistaken at the same time; if one of them is clearly true, then the other must be false. From the above examples, it is known that A is a true judgment, and Ye is a false judgment.
A conflict relationship exists between judgments (judgments) that differ in content and size. Both of these opinions (judgments) cannot be both true and false at the same time. One of them is always true and the other is always false. From the above examples, A is true and O is false. Also, I is a judgment (judgment) true, Ye - a judgment (judgment) is wrong.
Among the judgments (judgments) that fit together, the sentences with the same content and different size are in a relationship of mutual subordination. In this case, general judgments (judgments) are subordinate, partial judgments (judgments) are subordinate. If the general judgments are true in the relation of subordination, the partial judgments subordinate to them are also true. But when partial judgments are true, general judgments are uncertain (true or false). From the above example, since the A-judgment (judgment) is true, the subordinate I-judgment (judgment) is also true. If the general judgments (judgments) are wrong, the partial judgments subordinate to them will be uncertain (true or false). In our example, since Ye - reasoning (judgment) is wrong, O - reasoning (judgment) is also wrong. In some cases, general judgments are false, while partial judgments are true.
A partial correspondence (subcontrary) relationship exists between partial judgments with different contents. These statements can be true at the same time, but they cannot both be false at the same time. If one of them is clearly false, then the other must be true. In our above example, since the error of O - reasoning (judgment) is clear, I - reasoning (judgment) is true.
Equivalence sentences are always true because they express the same idea in different ways. For example, "A. Oripov is the author of the anthem of the Republic of Uzbekistan" and "A. Oripov - The Hero of Uzbekistan" judgments (judgments) are mutually equivalent, that is, they are judgments (judgments) with the same subject but different predicates.
The above-mentioned laws, which express the attitude of judgments according to their truth, are of great importance in knowledge.
Basic concepts
1. Concept - a form of thinking that fully reflects the general and important features of objects in the human mind.
2. Analysis is a method of dividing the researched object into its component parts.
3. Synthesis - a method of examining things and events as a whole, connecting their constituent parts with each other.
4. Category is a special type of concept. A category is a scientific concept that reflects the relationships and connections of objects in the human mind in the most general way.
5. Definition - definition of concepts.
6. Classification - classification, categorization, this is the most perfect form of being.
7. The subject is the owner of the judgment. (S), is the first concept of judgment.
8. Predicate is part of the sentence (R), the second concept of the sentence.
9. Conjunctive sentences are unifying sentences.
10. Disjunctive sentence - subtractive sentences.
11. Implicative sentence - conditional sentences.
Review questions
1. What logical methods are used to form the concept?
2. What are the relationships between concepts?
3. What logical operations do you know with concepts?
4. What is a sentence and how is it structured?
5. What sizes are the terms in sentences A, E, I, O?
6. What is a complex sentence? What types are there?
Tasks and recommendations on the topic
1. Thoroughly master the materials on the structure and types of the main forms of thinking. Give examples of each of them.
2. Understand the main types of concept, judgment, inference and the relationship between them.
3. Give examples of each type of concept, judgment, conclusion.
4. Identify the specific features of inference and understand the essence of scientific induction.
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan. - T.: Uzbekistan, 2003.
2. Our main task is to further improve the development of our country and the well-being of our people. President Islam Karimov's speech at the meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers on the results of socio-economic development of our country in 2009 and the most important priorities of the economic program for 2010. People's Word, January 2010, 30.
3. Our priority is to modernize our country and build a strong civil society. Information on the joint session of the Legislative Chamber and the Senate of the Oliy Majlis of the Republic of Uzbekistan. January 2010, 28.
4. The Constitution of Uzbekistan is a solid foundation for us on the way to democratic development and building a civil society. President Islam Karimov's speech at the ceremony dedicated to the 17th anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan. "People's Word", December 2009, 6.
5. Karimov IA World financial and economic crisis, ways and measures to eliminate it in the conditions of Uzbekistan. - T.: Uzbekistan, 2009.
6. Karimov IA High spirituality is an invincible power. -T., "Spirituality", 2008.
7. Karimov IA Uzbekistan's 16-year path of independent development. T., "Uzbekistan", 2007.
8. Karimov IA The Uzbek people will never be dependent on anyone. - T.: Uzbekistan, 2005.
9. Karimov IA Our main goal is democratization and renewal of society, modernization and reform of the country. T., "Uzbekistan", 2005.
10. Karimov IA During the empire, we were considered second-class people. T., "Uzbekistan", 2005.
11. Plato. Laws. -T.: New age generation, 2002.
12. Bor MZ Osnovi ekonomicheskikh issledovaniy. Logic, methodology, organizational methodology. M., "DIS", 1998. 144 p.
13. Bocharov VA, Markil VI Basic Logic: Uchebnik. -M.: FORUM: INFRA. 2005. -336 p.
14. Voyshvilo Ye.K., Degtyarev MG Logic. - M.: Vlados, 1998.
15. Gorsky DP, Ivin AA, Nikiforov AA Kratkiy slovar po logike. - M.: Vlados, 2000.
16. Getmanova AD Logic (slovar i zadachnik) — M.: Vlados, 1998.
17. Degtyarov MG, Khmelevskaya SA Logic. - M.: "PERSE", 2003.
18. Jack Trout. "Novoye pozitsitonirovaniye." Series "Theory and practice of management". Spb. "Peter", 2000. 192 p.
19. Yerina Ye.B. "Logic: Uchebnoye posobiye. -M.: Izd-va, RIOR, 2006. -112 p.
20. Ivin AA, Nikifirov AL Slovar po logike. - M.: Vlados, 1998.
21. Ivlev Yu.V. Logic: Textbook. 3rd izd. Pererab. i dop. M.: TK Welby, Izd-vo. Prospectus. 2006. -288 p.
22. Kurbatov VI Logic. - Rostov-on-Don. Phoenix, 1997, Chapter II "Theory and practical argumentation".
23. Nikifirov AL Logic. - M.: Ves mir, 2001.
24. Mahkamov J., Gudratova U., Bahadirov O. Logic. - T., 2005.
25. Minto V. "Deductive and inductive logic". SPb. TIT "Comet", 1995. 464 p.
26. Svetlov VA Practical logic. SPb. "MIM", 1997. 576 p.
27. Skorik UD Logic and scheme. - M.: Prometheus, 2004.
28. Skirbeck G., Giles N. History of philosophy. -T.: Sharq, 2002.
29. Troyanovsky VM Logic and management. - M.: Izd. RDL, 2001, 240 p.
30. Sharipov M., Faizikhojhayeva D. Logic. Text of lectures. - T., 2000.
31. Sharifkho'jayev M., Abdullayev Yo. Management: 100 questions and answers. - T.: Labor, 2000.
32. Philosophy encyclopedic dictionary. - T.: Sharq, 2004.
33. Qudratova U. A set of tests and exercises for independent work on the subject of "Logic". T., TDIU, 2009.
34. "Landscapes of Truth" 96 classical philosophers. -T.: New age generation, 2002.
35. www.gov.uz.
36. www.press-service.uz.
37. www.bilim.uz.
38. www.philosophy.ru.
39. www.filosofiya.ru.
40. www.philosophy.nsc.ru.
41. http//philosophy.albertina.ru.
42. www.history.ru.
43. www.philosophy.com.
