Biology (Greek bios, "life"; and logos, "knowledge") life and research related issues. SHE IS empiricalfanning live of organisms is a field that studies structure, functions, change, origin, evolution and death. It is different organisms sorts, their operation, the appearance of species, their interaction and the environment describes his relationship with Biology botany, zoology, physiology It is divided into different branches. Biology appears as a science that unifies the system of knowledge about living nature. Because the evidence previously studied in this science is brought to certain systems from the point of view of history, and their sum makes it possible to determine the basic laws of the organic world. It is based on these laws that rational use of nature, its protection and restoration are carried out. Currently, the following research methods are used in various fields of biology. These include observational, comparative, historical, and experimental methods. Tracking method. It is one of the earliest methods that can be used to describe and describe any biological phenomenon. Later, this method was widely used to identify species. K. Linnaeus achieved great success in this field. This method has not lost its importance even today. Biology (bio... and ..logy) is a set of sciences about living nature. B. studies all forms of life: the structure and function of living organisms and natural communities, the origin and distribution of living beings, their interrelationship with each other and with the natural world. The main task of B. is to study the laws of manifestation of life, to reveal the essence of life, to systematize living organisms. "B." J. was the first to use the term separately in 1892. B. Lamarck and G. R. Treviranus suggested. This term T. Rose (1797) and K. It is also found in the works of Burdakh (1800). iology science system. B. composed of several subjects. According to the object of research B. It is divided into botany (the science that studies plants), zoology (the science that studies animals), human anatomy and physiology (the science that studies the structure and function of the human body), microbiology (the science that studies microorganisms), and hydrobiology (the science of organisms that live in water). These subjects, in turn, are divided into smaller branches. At the same time, B. a number of complex sciences were formed due to the merging of these sciences with each other and with other sciences (for example, cytogenetics, cytoembryology, ecological genetics, ecological physiology). B. subjects can be divided into separate subjects according to research methods. Biogeography studies the distribution of fluids, organisms, biochemistry of tissue and cell composition, and biophysics of physical processes and methods. In turn, these sciences can be divided into separate sciences according to the objects of investigation (for example, biochemistry of plants, biochemistry of animals). Biochemical and biophysical methods are often combined or combined with other disciplines to form new disciplines (for example, radiation biochemistry, radiobiology). Biometrics, i.e., biological math, is used to analyze and generalize the results of biological research. is of great importance. A number of sciences have been formed according to the level of studying the structure of living organisms (for example, molecular biology, histology, anatomy, ecology, etc.). Parasitology, helminthology, immunology, bionics, and space biology study the issues of B. directly related to practice. Man is studied by anthropology as a product of biological evolution and as an object, and social biology as a product of social life. History of development. If it is assumed that animals and plants were a source of food for people, B. its history can be said to have started from the time when man began to live in a cave, or even earlier. Animal paintings and hunting scenes in caves where primitive people found their origins show that they were aware of animal structure. Similar paintings were found in the caves of the Zirovutsoi gorge of the Kohitang mountain in the Surkhandarya region. Present B. development of science Peoples living on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea (Qad. Egypt, Greece) civilization. Greek and Roman natural philosophers were the first to try to explain the essence and origin of life from a materialistic point of view. In particular, Democritus put forward the materialist idea that things and events in the environment change without being permanent. Aristotle was the first to propose systematic study of animals. Galen is the first physiological experimenter who described the internal structure of a person, the function of blood vessels and nerves on the basis of the internal structure of animals (monkeys and pigs). In the Middle Ages, the development of science in the countries of Western Europe almost stopped, natural sciences began to develop rapidly in the countries of the Central Asian region. Scholars such as Muhammad Khorezmi, Abu Nasr Farabi, Abu Ali ibn Sina and Abu Rayhan Beruni occupy a special place in the history of sciences of this period. Berunii recognizes that nature is made of 5 elements: space, air, fire, water and earth. In his work "India", he compares nature to a gardener who allows the strongest and healthiest branches to grow on a tree. With this, he predicts the struggle for survival between living organisms and the occurrence of natural selection. In his works, Ibn Sit wrote about plants and animals and other natural objects, phenomena and their causes. Geographical discoveries and growing interest in flora and fauna during the Renaissance lead to the establishment of botanical and zoological gardens in several countries. Many works about animals and plants appeared during this period. During this period, the Italian botanist A. Chezalpino tried to classify plants according to the structure of flowers, seeds and fruits, and some concepts of metamorphosis, order and species appear for the first time in his works. In the 16th and 17th centuries, several encyclopedic works about animals appeared. Swiss scientist K. Gesner's 5-volume History of Animals, Italian U. 13-volume monograph of Aldrovandi, French naturalist G. Rondele and the Italian Ch. Salviani's works on the animals of the countries beyond the sea are among them. During this period, particularly great discoveries were made in the field of anatomy. English scientist U. Harvey (1578-1657) creates his theory of blood circulation system. Italian scientist F. Redy's experiments (1667) gave a great blow to the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of life, but did not lead to its complete destruction. Many scientists believed that basal organisms without ovules could arise spontaneously. The discovery of the microscope in the 16th century was of great importance for the development of B. Englishman R. The discovery of the cell by Hooke (1665), Dutchman A. Single cells and spermatozoa by Levenguk (1673), English T. Millington (1676) and German R. Kamerarmus (1694) of sexual differences in plants, Italian Malpighi (1675-79) and English N. By Grew (1671-82) plant tissues, as well as fish ova (N. Steno, 1667) and the discovery of capillary blood vessels is connected with the invention of the microscope. These discoveries led to the emergence of two currents in embryology, called ovists and animalists. The first of them - the organism is inside the egg cell in the form of a dwarf, and the second - inside the sperm cell, and the subsequent changes are only quantitative changes (q. Preformism). In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were several attempts to create an artificial system of plants and animals. English scientist J. Ray described more than 18 thousand plants and classified plants into 19 classes, French J. Turnefor divides them into 22 classes. Ray defined the concept of species and developed the classification of invertebrates. The perfect artificial system of animals and plants was created by the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus proposed in his System of Nature (1735). Linnaeus, in his system, included man in the class of mammals and, together with monkeys, in the order of primates, but he promoted the metaphysical idea of the immutability of species and the creation of the world by divine power. Linnaeus' binary nomenclature (the designation of a species by genus and species names) was particularly important in the systematics of plants and animals. But Linnaeus' artificial system did not satisfy many natural scientists. For this reason, several scientists tried to create a natural system. The French botanist A. was the first to use such a system in the field of botany. L. Jussier was born in 1789. Not all scientists liked the idea of systematizing animals and plants. French naturalist J. Buffon strongly opposes any system of nature, including the Linnaean system. J. Buffon in his work "Natural History" (1749-88) shows the commonality in the structure of animals, tries to explain the similarity between close forms by their mutual kinship. German doctor and chemist G. Stahl emphasizes that a person's activity is controlled by his soul, and as proof of this, he shows the connection of physiological reactions with neuropsychic effects. His opinion about the "tone of life" is based on the German physiologist A. It is expressed in Galler's idea of influence (1753). He and the Czech anatomist and physiologist Y. Prokhoska showed that there is a nerve power that receives impressions and moves organs without the participation of the brain. Italian scientists L. Galvani and A. Volta discovered electricity in the animal organism, which led to the emergence and development of the science of electrophysiology. English scientist J. Priestley shows that plants produce the oxygen that animals need to breathe. French scientists A. Lavoisier, P. Laplace and A. Segen showed the importance of oxygen in animal respiration and oxidation reactions. Ideas about the historical development of the organic world began to take shape from the second half of the 18th century. German scientist G. V. Leibniz promulgates the principles of gradation of living things and suggests intermediate forms between plants and animals. The principle of the "level of life" (gradation) from minerals to humans, Swiss naturalist Sh. According to Bonne (1745-64), life shows the continuity of structure and development. J. Buffon developed his hypothesis about the history of the Earth. According to him, the history of the Earth consists of 80-90 thousand years and is divided into 7 periods, only in the most recent period plants, animals and man appeared. French scientist J. B. Lamarck in his work "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809) explains the "level of life" from the point of view of evolution. According to him, the improvement of living organisms from the base to the higher forms occurred due to the internal progress characteristic of the organism (the principles of gradation). Although Lamarck explained evolution correctly, he failed to reveal its main causes. French scientist J. Cuvier puts forward his idea of catastrophes to explain the historical exchange of living organisms and the extinction of several species. French scientist EJ Saint-Iler attempts to explain the commonality of structure in animals, arguing that similarities in structure reflect similarities in their origins. T. The cell theory founded by Schwann (1839) was of great importance in understanding the unity of the organic world and in the development of cytological and histological examinations. In the middle of the 19th century, the nature of plant nutrition and its difference from that of animals, as well as the principles of the circulation of substances in nature, were discovered (Yu. Liebig, J. B. Bussengo). E. in the field of animal physiology. The foundation of electrophysiology due to the works of Dubois-Raymond, K. Explanation of the importance of organs in food digestion by Berner (1845,1847, XNUMX); G. Helmholz and K. Development of methods for studying the neuromuscular system and sensory organs by Ludwig; I. M. Sechenov's interpretation of higher nervous activity from a materialistic point of view ("Cerebral Reflexes", 1863) became of great importance. L. Due to the researches conducted by Pasteur, the theory of spontaneous generation of modern organisms was dealt a blow (1860-64). S. N. Vinogradskyi (1887-91), D. I. In the 19th century Ch. The development of the theory of evolution by Darwin is especially important in the history of the development of B. In his work "The Origin of Species..." (1859), the main mechanism of evolution - natural selection - is revealed. With the victory of Darwin's ideas in B., new trends such as evolutionary comparative anatomy (K. Gegenbaur), evolutionary embryology (AO Kovalevsky, II Mechnikov), evolutionary paleontology (VO Kovalevsky) were founded. Cell division (E. Strasburger, 1875; W. Flemming, 1882, etc.), maturation of germ cells, fertilization (O. Hertwig, 1875; G. Fol, 1877; E. van Beneden, 1884; T. Boveri, 1887, 1888) and related successes in the field of studying the distribution of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis led to the emergence of many ideas about the storage of genetic information in the nucleus of germ cells. It was during this period (1865) that G. Mendel discovered the laws of heredity, and the science of genetics was founded.
20th century new B. The development of sciences is distinguished by the further expansion of the scale of classical studies in B. In this century, genetics, cytology, physiology, biochemistry, developmental biology, evolutionary theory, ecology, biosphere theory, as well as microbiology, virology, helminthology, parasitology and many other branches of biology developed rapidly. Based on the laws discovered by Mendel, the chromosomal theories of mutation and heredity were developed (T. Bowery, 190207; SHE IS. Setton, 1902). Chromosome theory T. Morgan and students V. Based on Johansen's doctrine of pure line (1903), they developed the concepts of gene, genotype, phenotype. Until the middle of the 20th century, it was theoretically interpreted that the chemical nature of genes is in the form of hereditary molecules (N. K. Kolsov, 1927). Based on the study of transduction and transformation events in microorganisms, it was determined that the DNA molecule carries genetic information (USA, O. Avery, 1944). Study of the structure of DNA bird helix (J. Watson, F. Crick, 1953) led to the discovery of the genetic code. These discoveries laid the foundation for molecular genetics. Studying the amino acid composition of proteins, synthesizing some proteins (insulin), showing that viruses and phages are composed of nucleoproteins are among the most important discoveries made in the middle of the 20th century. The discovery of the electron microscope made it possible to see the structures that cannot be seen with an ordinary microscope, to examine the most delicate structure of the cell, to study the structure of bacteria and viruses in detail. The method of target atoms opened the way to study the processes occurring in the organism. Histological chemistry differential centrifugation, x-ray structure analysis methods showed the methods of perfect investigation of the chemical composition of living organisms, cell organoids and parts. Thanks to these discoveries, in the second half of the 20th century, the youngest field of B. - molecular B. was born and began to develop rapidly. Molecular B. research in the field B. led to the emergence of new ideas in all areas of science; fundamentally changed the understanding of the structure and function of the cell. In the 20th century, great progress was made in the field of animal physiology. Russian scientist I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) studied the nervous system and founded the doctrine of cerebral reflexes. I. P. Made several major discoveries in the field of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, blood circulation and nervous regulation of digestion. His theory of conditioned reflexes and higher nervous activity was awarded the Nobel Prize. During this period, neurophysiology also begins to develop rapidly. In the physiology of plants, a significant breakthrough was achieved in the study of the processes of photosynthesis, first of all, chlorophyll, chlorophyll was synthesized, some plant growth hormones (auxins, gibberellins) were isolated and artificially synthesized. Important discoveries were also made in the field of evolutionary theory, in particular, in the 20s and 30s, the centers of origin of cultivated plants were identified; revealed the role of mutational variation, variation in the number of individuals, and isolation in influencing selection in a particular direction (NI Vavilov, S. S. Chetverikov, B. S. Haldane, R. Fisher, S. Wright, J. Haqsli, F. T. Dobrzhansky, E. Mayr and others). This allowed the further development of Darwinism, the development of the synthetic evolutionary doctrine, which includes the doctrines of microevolution and macroevolution of evolutionary factors (I. I. Schmalhausen and others). V. I. Vernadsky's biogeochemistry and biosphere, A. Tensley's teachings on ecosystems (1935) are one of B.'s great achievements and are important in developing the relationship between man and nature. V. Shelford (1912, 1939), Ch. Thanks to the work of Elton (1934) and others, the theoretical foundations of ecology were developed. Almost all B. led to environmentalization of science. Molecular biol. work in the field of genetics (opening of the genetic code, synthesis of artificial genes) became the theoretical basis for the development of applied sciences such as genetic engineering and biotechnology. In the following years, especially populous B. is developing rapidly.
Dog work carried out in Uzbekistan in the first half of the 20th century is mainly related to the study and effective use of plant and animal resources and environmental protection. In the field of botany, methods of improving the phytoremediation condition of pastures, cultivation of technical crops and algae were developed; geoecological classification of plants, hierarchical scheme was proposed; The characteristics of adaptation of plants to extreme conditions were revealed (Q. 1. Zokirov, JK Saidov, PA Baranov, VA Burigin, AM Muzaffarov, P. K Zokirov and others); a number of works were carried out in the field of studying the ecological, anatomomorphological and genetic characteristics of cotton (SX Yoldoshev, AI Imomaliyev, S. S Sodikov, etc.). Microbiological treatment of waste water, extracting minerals, preparation of fodder from agricultural waste, extraction of physiologically active substances, fight against wilt and viral diseases of plants were created (MI Mavlony, AF Kholmurodov, SA Askarova, etc.). Eco-faunistic works were carried out on a large scale in teriology, ornithology, herpetology, hydrobiology, entomology, parasitology and other fields of zoology (T. 3. Zohidov, DN Kashkarov, AM Muhammadiyev, SN Alimuhamedov, VV Yakhontov, RO Olimjonov, AT To'laganov, MA Sultanov, JA Azimov and others). In the second half of the 3th century, especially in recent years, a number of important works were carried out in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, biophysics and ecology. The mechanism of action of thyroid hormones was analyzed (Yo. Kh. Torakulov, TS Soatov). The structure of biological membranes, toxicology and biochemistry of animals, mechanism of action of ionizing rays, defoliants and solving problems of transport of ions through the membrane have also achieved a number of successes (AP Ibragimov, JH Hamidov, AQ Kasimov). The mechanism of inheritance of genetic traits was developed in cotton (JA Musayev, OJ Jalilov, AA Abdullayev, NN Nazirov, AA Abdukarimov). The development of gene and cell engineering made it possible to obtain insulin, interferon and growth hormones (BO Toshmuhamedov, AA Abdukarimov, MM Rahimov, AI Gagelgans, etc.). Research on B. is being carried out in the Departments of Botany, Zoology, Microbiology, Genetics, Physiology and Biophysics, Biochemistry of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, as well as in higher educational institutions. Modern problems of B. The problems of B. that have a revolutionary effect on the development of natural sciences and human society are related to molecular B., genetic sciences, physiology and biochemistry of muscles, nervous system and sense organs (thinking, excitation, inhibition, etc.), photo and chemosynthesis, energy and productivity of natural systems. The field of molecular B. is one of the central problems of B. the study of the mechanism of physicochemical processes going on inside the cell and the relative stability of living systems, especially the activation of genes. Studying the specialization of cells and the formation of tissues during the individual development of an organism, the natural synthesis of complex polymers characteristic of living organisms in the early stages of life on Earth, and the emergence of living systems that can create themselves from them are also important issues. The rapid growth of the population on Earth poses many problems to B., including increasing the productivity of the biosphere, protecting the habitat from pollution, protecting plants and animals, and rational use. Reconstruction of the biosphere and ecological systems and their use involves the inventory of plants, animals and microorganisms in all parts of the Earth. Research work in the field of B. is coordinated with the help of the International Biological Program.
Bekjon Toshmuhamedov, Achil Mavlonov. Comparison method It is based on revealing the essence of the same object or events by identifying their similarities and differences with other objects or events. Historical methodapplication in biology Ch. Darwin As the name implies, this method causes profound qualitative changes in biology. Nowadays, using this method, it is possible to determine the processes of development of living nature based on the data showing the present world and its past. Experimental or experimental method In biology, it was used in the Middle Ages, but its real development began to be widely used in the 19th and 20th centuries due to the application of the methods of physics and chemistry. These methods are used in related fields of biology and they complement each other.
