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Activity and motivation
PLAN:
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An understanding of the activity.
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Structure and types of activity.
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Description of motive and motivation.
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Types of motifs.
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Theories of motivation (A. Maslow, A. Adler, Z. Freud)
KEY CONCEPTS:
Activity — human-specific activity controlled by consciousness, arising in the fulfillment of needs, knowledge of the external world and man, as well as activity aimed at changing them.
Interiorization — the process of transition from an external real job to an internal ideal job.
Exteriorization - the process of thinking first inside, and then moving directly to external relations.
Heffort - a process aimed at the realization of the goal.
Need - the initial form of activity of living organisms.
Maqsad - it is manifested as the image of the last result of human activity, the fulfillment of needs.
Mmotive - the reason for the action.
One of the main characteristics of a person is his ability to work, and any type of work is an activity
1. Concept of activity |
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The psychological theory of activity was created in universal psychology. Also, he LS Vygotsky, SL Rubinstein, AN Leontev, AR Luria, AV Zaporozhets, P.YA. It is covered in the works of Halperin and many other psychologists.[2]
Activity is a developing system of the subject's interaction with the world. In the process of such interaction, the mental image is formed and its expression in the object, as well as the realization of the subject's relationship with reality. Any simple act of activity is a form of expression of the subject's activity, which means that each activity has motivational reasons and is directed to achieve certain results.
And so, activity can be defined as a person-specific, mind-controlled, need-fulfilling activity aimed at knowing the external world and the person, as well as at changing them.
Activity subjectivity va subjectivity has features. The subject of activity refers to the events that he is directly involved in. For example, the subject of cognitive activity serves various types of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills and abilities, and the subject of labor activity is a specific material product created. The subject of activity is a person, an individual.
In addition to the subject and subject of the activity, the means and results of the activity are also related to this concept. In the implementation of the activity, the means of labor for a person are understood as the tools used to perform one or another action and procedure. The results of activity are the created products that have a material or spiritual nature.[1]
Thus, the activity is distinguished by the following characteristics:
— is a form of activity with an internal motive;
— productivity of human activity. Creation of a tangible or fully mature product;
— originates from the private, higher, social needs of a person;
- human activity is manifested in the product produced by him, such expression or reflection of activity embodies human knowledge and skills.
The theory of activity is fully described in the scientific works of AN Leontev, in particular, "Activity. Consciousness. It is described in the work "Shakhs" (M., 1982).
Concepts about the structure of activity do not fully explain the theory of activity, but form its basis.
Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several layers or levels. Moving from TOP to bottom, we name them: level of individual activities (or specific types of activity); action level; level of treatments; level of psychophysiological tasks. Thus, the components of the structure of activity include motive, goal, action (external, objective and internal, mental; processes of interiorization and exteriorization), procedures, psychophysiological tasks. A motive is a motivating reason for an activity. A goal is a description of a desired result that is to be achieved by performing an activity.
Movement - this is the main unit of activity analysis. By definition, action is a process directed toward the realization of a goal. The following characteristics of the concept of "movement" can be mentioned.
First feature: action includes as a necessary ingredient the act of consciousness in the form of setting a goal and holding on to it.
Second feature: movement is considered to be an act of behavior at the same time.
Thus, the theory of activity differs from the previous concepts (behaviorism) of the primary two characteristics continuous unity of mind and attitude consists of recognition.[2]
Third, very important feature: activity theory asserts the principle of activity by opposing the principle of affectivity through the concept of "movement". Based on each of the principles of activity and sensitivity, the starting point of the analysis of activity should be placed in the external environment or the organism of the subject.
The fourth feature: the concept of action "takes" human activity into the social and physical world.
Action is always related to the goal. The goal determines the action, and the action ensures the realization of the goal. The nature of the action can be determined by the nature of the target. What can be said by analyzing human goals? First of all, it is possible to mention their great variety, and most importantly, their large volume.
Large goals are divided into smaller, specific goals, which in turn can be divided into even more specific goals, etc. Accordingly, each sufficiently large action consists of moving to different levels in the system of actions of a lower order sequence. . For example, you want to contact another city by phone. In order to perform this action (order I), you need to perform a number of private actions (order II): you need to go to the long-distance telephone network, find the necessary machine, stand in line, etc. After entering the cabin, contact the subscriber you have to But for this you have to do a series of small tasks (order III): you need to throw a coin, press a button, dial certain numbers, etc.
Processing is the next lower level of activity execution. Treatment refers to the way in which an action is performed. For example, multiplying two two-digit numbers can be solved in memory and by writing the example in column form. These are two different methods or two different operations of the same mathematical example.[1]
What will depend on the nature of the treatments used? First of all, they depend on the conditions under which the action is performed. If the action responds to the goal itself, then the treatment responds to the conditions in which the goal is set. Such conditions include, in addition to external conditions, also the capabilities or internal means of the operating entity.
In the theory of action, the purpose of certain conditions is called a problem. When describing the process of solving the problem, it is necessary to indicate both the actions and procedures that implement them.
The main feature of the treatments is that they are less understood or not understood at all. With these properties, manipulations are fundamentally different from actions that specify both the conscious goal and the control of the execution of the action.
Treatments are divided into two types: some occur with the help of adaptation, adaptation, direct imitation; others appear in the action automation tool. Treatments of the first type are not understood, they cannot be created in our mind, even with the help of special tools. The second type of treatment is located at the border of consciousness. They can easily become relevant.[1]
Each complex action consists of a sequence of actions and a layer of "overlapping" procedures. The indeterminacy of the boundary between conscious and unconscious activities, which is relevant in every complex action, indicates the fluidity of the boundary that separates the sequence of actions from the sequence of procedures. The upward movement of this limit means the change of some actions (mostly the simplest ones) in the procedure. The downward movement of the boundaries, on the other hand, means that the processes become actions, that is, the activity is divided into smaller units. Below is a suitable example. During the discussion, you had a new idea, and we imagine that you expressed it mainly based on the content, regardless of the way of expression. You will have performed an action supported by many processes, namely, mental, speech, etc. All of them will have done the activity of expressing the idea together.
The lowest level in the activity structure is psychophysiological tasks we will see. In the theory of activity, these tasks include the physiological maintenance of mental processes. They include the human organism's ability to feel, form and record remnants of past impressions, motor ability, and others. It is possible to talk about sensory, mnemonic, and motor tasks, respectively. This level also includes mechanisms that are innate and occur in the first months of life, which have a strong place in the morphology of the nervous system. All abilities and mechanisms are given to a person at birth, that is, they are determined by heredity.[1]
Psychophysiological tasks provide the means of activity with the necessary initial conditions for the implementation of mental tasks. For example, in order to retain information in our memory, we use special methods of quick and high-quality memorization. But if we did not have the mnemonic functions of the ability to remember, we would not be able to perform this activity. Mnemic tasks are innate. As soon as the child is born, he begins to memorize a large amount of information. Initially, this is simple information, and later, in the process of development, in addition to the amount of information that needs to be stored in memory, the quality indicators of memory also change.
There is a memory disease called "Korsakov's syndrome" (named after the famous Russian psychiatrist SS Korsakov, who first studied it). This is where the mnemonic task fails. In this disease, events, even those that happened a few minutes ago, are not remembered at all. Such patients, for example, greet the doctor several times a day and may not remember whether they ate today or not. One patient, forgetting that he had just read to his mother a fragment of a book that he liked, would read it without stopping, repeating it several dozen times. If such a patient tries to memorize a text, he can immediately forget the memorization along with the text.
Thus, it can be concluded that psychophysiological tasks are an organic structure of activity processes. Without relying on them, there is no possibility of setting tasks other than the execution of actions and procedures.[2]
In any activity structure internal va external components can be separated. Internal components include the anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the activities controlled by the central nervous system, as well as the psychological processes and states involved in the control of activities. External components can include various actions related to the actual performance of the activity (NA Bernstein).
As the activity progresses and changes, a systematic transition of external to internal components is carried out. In this interiorizationya, automationya va exteriorizationya is also observed.
Thus, in addition to external activity, internal, mental activity can also be distinguished. What are the tasks of this activity? First of all, these tasks consist of preparation of internal actions for external actions. They make it possible to quickly select the necessary action, help to save human effort, and also avoid gross errors. For example, a person designates a place to hang bookshelves against the wall. He chooses one path, evaluates it, then abandons it, goes to the second, the third, and finally stops at a suitable and comfortable position. Although during this time he does not "move a finger", that is, he does not perform any practical action.[2]
"Running" actions in the brain involves thinking about them in advance. How does a person who is thinking about what to do act? He imagines that some action has taken place and considers its consequences. Looking at them, he chooses the action that suits his situation. OR another example, in many cases when a person waits for some happy event, he imagines that event as if it has already happened. As a result, he finds himself sitting with a happy smile on his face. These examples are examples of the inner workings of a person. It is distinguished by its two main features. First, internal activity has the same structure as external activity, they differ from each other only in the form of being. This means that these two activities are motivated by motives, observed along with emotional experiences, and have their own therapeutic technical structure. The difference between internal activity and external activity consists in the fact that actions are performed not with real objects, but with their imaginary image, and instead of a real product, an idea result is formed. Second, internal activity has arisen through the transfer of appropriate actions from external activity to internal state. In order to effectively implement an action mentally, it is necessary to master it in practice and get a real result. For example, in a game of chess, the movement of the pieces is mastered, and only after their consequences are perceived, it is possible to think of a chess move.
It should be noted that the authors of the theory of activity faced the problem of analysis of consciousness and mental processes through the concept of internal activity. According to the authors of activity theory, mental processes can be analyzed from the point of view of activity, because any mental process has its own tasks and procedural-technical structure, and is carried out for a specific purpose. For example, the perception of taste has perceptual goals and tasks related to the determination of mutual differences and degrees of correspondence of taste qualities. Another example of a perceptual task is the detection process. Such tasks have to be performed regularly in our daily life when solving problems with eye contact, recognizing faces, voices, etc. To solve all tasks, perceptual actions in the form of differentiating, identifying, measuring, familiarizing and other actions are performed in accordance with each.
It is possible and necessary to study mental processes (perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc.) as a separate form of activity from the point of view of activity theory, and use certain information - the general structure of activity, levels, forms of passage, etc. [2 ]
2. Structure and types of activity |
Any activity is manifested in real conditions, in different ways and in different forms. Since each action is directed to a known object - an object, the activity is conceived as a set of actions with an object. Actions with objects are aimed at changing the properties and quality of objects in the external world. For example, the subject action of a student summarizing a lecture is focused on writing, and he is enriching the stock of knowledge by changing the number and quality of entries in that notebook. It is precisely the activity and the subject movements that make it up to what depending on the direction, first of all, external and internal activities are distinguished. Outdoor activity if it is an activity aimed at changing the external environment surrounding a person and the things and events in it, internal activity — is primarily a mental activity, which results from the passage of purely psychological processes. From the point of view of origin, internal - mental, psychic activity originates from activity with an external object. At first, external activity with an object takes place, as experience is gained, these actions gradually turn into internal mental processes. If we take this as an example of speech activity, the child expresses the first words with a loud sound in his external speech, later he learns to speak on his own, thinks, reflects, sets goals and plans for himself. goes on.
In any situation, all actions are controlled by the mind, both from the point of view of internal-psychological and external - compatibility. Any activity includes both mental and physical - motor actions. For example, have you ever observed a wise man thinking? If you carefully observe a thinking person, although the leading activity in him is mental, his forehead, eyes, even the movements of his body and hands are not able to settle on a very important and serious thought, or find a new idea and take it from him. shows that he is happy. At first glance, the actions of the gardener, who is performing external elementary work - for example, removing excess leaves from a grape plant, are also not devoid of mental components, he knows which leaves are superfluous and removes them knowingly.[1]
Mental actions are various actions that a person consciously performs with the help of internal psychological mechanisms. It has been experimentally proven that such movements always include motor movements. Such actions may take the following forms:
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perceptive that is, these are actions that result in the formation of a holistic image of surrounding objects and events;
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mnemonic activity, a complex type of activity related to the recollection, recall and retention of material related to the essence and content of things and events;
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thinking activity activity aimed at solving various problems, issues and riddles by means of intelligence, wisdom;
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imaginative — (derived from the word "image" -obraz) its activity is such that it requires understanding and restoring in imagination the features of things that are not immediately present in the mind by means of imagination and fantasy in creative processes.
As we noted above, any activity is formed on the basis of external actions and may consist of motor components. If there is a transition to mental processes on the basis of external activity, such a process is described in psychology interiorization is called, on the contrary, the ideas formed in the mind are directly transferred to external actions or external activities exteriorization is held as.[2]
The types of activities also differ according to the degree of direct involvement of the mind. For example, it may be the case that some activities require that each element be done seriously, individually, and focused on it at the beginning. But over time, gradually the participation of the mind in it decreases, and many parts become automatic. When this is translated into plain language, malaka is said to have been formed. For example, each of us is used to writing letters in this way. If our skills strictly rely on the knowledge we have, ensuring successful performance of actions according to the objectives and requirements of the activity, we will skills we call it. Skills — always relies on our specific knowledge. For example, skills and competencies are interrelated, therefore, all skills and competencies formed in the course of educational activities ensure the successful study of an individual. Both are strengthened through exercises and repetitions. If we take only the qualification, the ways of its formation can be as follows:
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by simple demonstration;
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by way of explanation;
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by combining demonstration with explanation.
Skills and abilities are important in life. They ease our physical and mental efforts. It ensures that we achieve success in studies, work, sports and creativity.
Another common way of classifying and categorizing activity is to categorize it into basic types of activity common to all humans. These are communication, play, study and work activities.[2]
Communication — one of the primary types of activity manifested in the course of individual development of a person. This activity comes from one of the strongest human needs - to be human, to talk like people, to understand them, to love them, to coordinate mutual relations. A person begins his development by mastering this type of activity and lays the groundwork for perfect mastery of other types of activity through speech (verbal) and non-verbal means (nonverbal).
Game — a type of activity that does not directly involve the creation of any material or spiritual benefits, but in its process complex and diverse norms of activity in society, symbolic patterns of actions are mastered by the child. A child cannot understand the meaning and essence of adults' actions until they play.
Reading activity also plays a big role in the development of a person and acquires meaning. This is an activity in the course of which knowledge, skills and various skills are acquired.
Labor doing is an activity based on the most natural needs, and its purpose is to create some material or spiritual benefits, to contribute to the development of society.
All laws and mechanisms of activity apply to mastering any profession, not just mastering it, but skillfully performing it. Acquiring a skill requires not simply memorizing and retrieving relevant information, but consciously engaging in both internal (mental) and external (subject-oriented) activities. It should not be forgotten that there are complex processes involved in implementation. But the psychological factors - the reasons that forced each person to engage in this or that type of activity are important, and this are activity motives.[1]
There are functionally related motivational and executive aspects of human behavior. In psychology, the concepts of motivation and motive are the most general and basic among the concepts used to describe and explain the motivational states of human behavior.[1]
The term "motivation" has a wider meaning than the term "motive". The word "motivation" is the determining factor of behavior in modern psychology. In particular, it is used in a double sense as a feature of the motivational process, which determines the system of needs, motives, goals, aspirations and many others) and keeps behavioral activity at a certain level. We use the concept of motivation in the first sense. And so, motivationcan be defined as a set of psychological reasons that explain human behavior, its origin, direction and activity.[1][3]
LET'S STEP BACK NOW AND CONSIDER four perspectives psychologists have used in their attempt to understand motivated behaviors. Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective) focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors. Drive-reduction theory focuses on how our inner pushes and external pulls interact. Arousal theory focuses on finding the right level of stimulation. And Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs describes how some of our needs take priority over others.
Before considering how organizational psychologists can help employers in their efforts to motivate and secure employment, let's take a closer look at why any worker can achieve a high standard or a challenging goal.
Remember someone you know who strives to succeed in anything that offers growth. Now remember to try less than that.
Psychologist Henry Murray (1938) described the first person's achievement motivation as the pursuit of significant achievements for the acquisition of skills and ideas, for management, as well as for the rapid achievement of a high standard.
You can expect them to be persistent and take on realistic tasks, highly motivated people achieve a lot.
1 California children who scored in the top 1528 percent on intelligence tests were studied over their lifetimes. Forty years later, researchers found motivational differences when comparing high and low career achievers. Those who were more successful were full of energy and determination. They had a lot of active activities in their childhood. Growing up, he participated in many groups and was a participant in sports competitions rather than a spectator (Golmen, 1980). Gifted children are gifted learners. Experienced adults are tenacious performers.
When high school and university students were studied together, self-discipline scored higher than intelligence for achievement, attendance, and reputation. "Discipline trumps talent," the researchers concluded, to acquire things, ideas, and people, and to achieve a high standard.
Angela Duckworth and Martin Seligman explain why girls get higher grades in school than boys of similar ability (2005,2006).
But discipline improves talent. In their early 20s, top violinists have accumulated 10000 hours twice as much as other student violinists who intend to become teachers (Erikson et al., 2001,2006,2007, 1998, 10). From the research of the psychologist Herbert Simon (1985), who received the Nobel Prize in Economics, a rule called the 4,5-year rule emerged: a period of not less than ten years in the field of world expert classes, i.e. forty hours a week, fifty weeks a year Great scientists, athletes, and artists were studied and found to be highly motivated and self-disciplined, willing to spend hours a day to achieve their goals (Blum, XNUMX). These bright stars were distinguished not only by their extraordinary talent, but also by their daily discipline. The top result feels like a gallon of sweat mixed with a teaspoon of inspiration.[2][3]
Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal. Having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation and we hunger for information. We are «infovores,» say neuroscientists Irving Biederman and Edward Vessel (2006), after identifying brain mechanisms that reward us for acquiring information. Lacking stimulation, we feel bored and look for a way to increase arousal to some optimal level. However, with too much stimulation comes stress, and we then look for a way to decrease arousal.
As Duckworth and Seligman note, what separates highly successful people from their equally gifted peers is courage—a passionate commitment to a grand, long-term goal. Nevertheless, the quality of the intelligent call appears to be a deviation, not an achievement. This tells us that success encompasses much more than raw talent. Therefore, organizational psychologists are looking for ways to attract and motivate ordinary people working in ordinary jobs.
Aspects such as the emergence, duration and stability of behavior, orientation and completion after achieving the desired goal, tendency to future events, proportionality and content integrity of a separate behavioral act, and increasing its effectiveness require a motivational explanation. is enough.
"Why?", "why?", "for what purpose?", "for what?", "what is its essence?" and the search for answers to other such questions is done according to motivation.
Any form of behavior can be explained by internal and external causes. In the first situation, the psychological properties of the subject's behavior appear as the initial and final conditions of the explanation, and in the second - external and operational conditions. In the first situation reasonlar, needs, goals, wishes, interests etc., and in the second - it was caused by the situation incentives is talked about. All factors that sometimes determine human behavior from the inside person dispositionrun is called Accordingly, dispositional and situational motivations are spoken of as internal and external analogs of behavior determination. Therefore, the desired action of a person is considered as a twofold: dispositional and situational determination.
Dispositions are intrinsically motives. motive in contrast to motivation, this is a stable personal property of the subject of behavior that urges him to perform certain actions from within. Motive can also be defined as a concept that represents most dispositions in a generalized form.
The most important of the available dispositions needis the concept of A need is a state of deficiency of a person or an animal in certain conditions for their normal living and development. A need as a state of personality is regularly associated with a feeling of dissatisfaction associated with a deficiency for the organism (person) in a person.
The main characteristics of human needs include the power of satisfaction, periodicity and method of occurrence. An important need of a person is its physical content, that is, a set of objects of material and spiritual culture that can satisfy this need.
The concept of motivational importance after need is this the goal. A goal is a direct tangible result that is related to an activity and satisfies an actual need. Psychologically, the goal is the motivational content of consciousness, which is perceived by a person as a direct and expected result of his activity.
Dispositions (motives), needs and goals from the considered motivational derivatives are considered to be the main constituents of the human motivational field.
In terms of development, the motivational field of a person can be evaluated according to the indicators of breadth, flexibility, and hierarchization. Motivational field width when it is said, it is understood that the motivational factors such as dispositions, needs and goals presented in each of the levels are qualitatively different. The more different motives, needs and goals a person has, the more developed his motivational field is.
Motivational field flexibility characterizes the motivation process as follows: the more different lower-level motivational tendencies are used to satisfy a higher-level motivational tendency, the more flexible the motivational field is. For example, if one individual's need for knowledge is satisfied only through television, radio, and movies, for another, the means of satisfying the same need are various books, periodicals, and communication with people. In the latter case, the motivational sphere is considered more flexible.
Hierarchy - this is a characteristic of each structural level in the motivational field taken separately. The same dispositions (motives, goals) are stronger than others and are formed more often; others are weaker, and less relevant. The greater the differences in the strength and frequency of motivational derivatives of a certain level, the higher the hierarchical nature of the motivational field.
In addition to motives, needs, and goals, interests, problems, desires, and goals are also considered as drivers of human behavior. Curiosity refers to a specific motivational state that is cognitive, not directly related to the same, current need. The problem arises when the organism encounters obstacles that need to be overcome while performing an action aimed at achieving a certain goal. Wishes va goals - this is a motivational subjective state that occurs immediately and often replaces each other, responding to changes in the conditions of action.[2]
Motivation of human behavior can be conscious and unconscious. This means that some of the needs and goals that govern human behavior are understood by humans, while others are not.
Thus, motives may be conscious or unconscious. Perceived motives occupy the main place in the formation of personality orientation.
4. Мtypes of motives |
The problem of knowing the nature of motives and changing them is important in studying the motivations of various professions. One such motive is in various fields of activity motivation to succeed and the founders of this theory are American scientists D. McClelland, D. Atkinson and German scientist H. Heckhausen. According to them, there are basically two types of motivation that make people do different things: motivation to succeed and motivation to avoid failures. People also differ in their motivations for engaging in various activities. For example, those who work only with the motive of success begin with such a belief that achieving success at all costs is their highest goal. They expect success before they even start, and when they do, they know that people will approve of all their efforts. In this way, they use not only their own strength and capabilities, but also all external opportunities, such as acquaintances and funds.[1]
A different behavior can be observed in individuals who rely on the motivation to avoid failure. For example, they, unlike the first, think about not facing failure before starting the work. Due to this, they have more lack of confidence, lack of belief in achieving success, and a state similar to pessimism. That's probably why, in the end, they still fail and come to the conclusion that "I'm a person who doesn't have much luck." If the people of the first category, after successfully completing one task, start the second task with a high spirit, then the representatives of the second category, after completing any task, regardless of its result, become depressed and start another task with a feeling of pain. In this place demand the role of the quality is great. If success-oriented individuals have high demands on themselves, then the demands of the second category are low. In addition, our perception of our real abilities in each of us also affects the place of these motives in the activity. For example, a person who believes in his abilities, even if he loses, does not worry too much, he believes that next time everything will be better. An insecure person experiences even the slightest reprimand or criticism with great emotional pain. For him, the quality of a person's concern in certain situations determines the nature of motives in a certain sense.[3]
The semistarved men's preoccupations illustrate the power of activated motives to hijack our consciousness. When we are hungry, thirsty, tired, or sexually aroused, little else may seem to matter. When you're not, food, water, sleep, or sex just doesn't seem like that big a thing in your life, now or ever. (You may recall from Chapter 8 a parallel effect of our current good or bad mood on our memories.) In University of Amsterdam studies, Loran Nordgren and his colleagues (2006, 2007) found that people in a motivational «hot» state (from fatigue, hunger, or sexual arousal) become more aware of having had such feelings in the past and more sympathetic to how fatigue, hunger, or sexual arousal might drive others' behavior. Similarly, if preschool children are made to feel thirsty (by eating salty pretzels), they understandably want water; but unlike children who are not thirsty, they also choose water over pretzels for "tomorrow" (Atance & Meltzoff, 2006). Motives matter mightily. Grocery shop with an empty stomach and you are more likely to think that those jelly-filled donuts are just what you've always loved and will be wanting tomorrow
Thus, the system of motives directly results from a person's relationship to work, people, and himself, and also determines his character traits. We can evaluate their manifestation in each of us in real conditions by the way we behave and achieve success before any responsible work. Take, for example, the responsible testing process. Some students are very anxious, even afraid, before the exam. Exams are a big worry for them. Others go through this process calmly and, although they are excited from the inside, they do not express it to others. And the third category of people are completely innocent and don't care. Naturally, accordingly, the success of the work of representatives of each category and the effectiveness of the activity will be different. It is also affected by the level of assertiveness in each person. If those with a higher level of pretentiousness try to prove whether they know or not, those with a lower level cannot tell what they know well and do not argue with the teacher again.
List of literature on the topic:
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Yugay AH, Mirashirova N.A. "Obshchaya psychology" - Tashkent 2014. S.-358-364.
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Safayev NS, Mirashirova NA "Theory and practice of general psychology" TDPU, 2013, B.42-64.
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David G. Myers "Psychology" Hope College Holland, Michigan 2010 yp-479-497.
On the topic of the Internet websitelist of ts:
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www.psychology.net.ru
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2. psy.piter.com